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Oriental Street Scene. 



HAND-BOOK 



OF 



Bible Manners and Customs. 



BY 

Rev. JAMES M. FREEMAN, A.M. 

Illustrated bg #ne |$vmbr*b anb JSidg-ngljt (fingrabings. 



New York : , 
NELSON & PHILLIPS. 

CINCINNATI : HITCHCOCK A WALDEN. 
1874. 



r~ 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874. by 

NELSON & PHILLIPS. 

in tlie Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 



PREFACE. 



rpHOUGH the Bible is adapted to all nations, it is in many respects an 
Oriental book. It represents the modes of thought and the peculiar cus- 
toms of a people who, in their habits, widely differ from us. One who lived 
among them for many years has graphically said: " Modes, customs, usages, 
all that you can set down to the score of the national, the social, or the con- 
ventional, are precisely as different from yours-as the east is different from the 
west. They sit when you stand ; they lie when you sit ; they do to the head 
what you do to the feet ; they use fire when you use water ; you shave the beard, 
they shave the head; you move the hat, they touch the breast; you use the 
lips in salutation, they touch the forehead and the cheek ; your house looks 
outwards, their house looks inwards ; you go out to take a walk, they go up 
to enjoy the fresh air; you drain your land, they sigh for water; you bring 
your daughters out, they keep their wives and daughters in ; your ladies go 
barefaced through the streets, their ladies are always covered." * 

The Oriental customs of to-day are, mainly, the same as those of ancient 
times. It is said by a recent writer that "the Classical world has passed 
away. "We must reproduce it if we wish to see it as it was." While 
this fact must be remembered in the interpretation of some New Testa- 
ment passages, it is nevertheless true that many ancient customs still exist 
in their primitive integrity. If a knowledge of Oriental customs is essential 
to a right understanding of numerous Scripture passages, it is a cause of 
rejoicing that these customs are so stereotyped in their character that we 
have but to visit the Bible lands of the present day to see the modes of life 
of patriarchal times. 

The design of this volume is to illustrate the Bible by an explanation of the 

Oriental customs to which it refers. The Bible becomes more than ever a 

real book when we can read it understandingly. "While this is eminently 

true of its doctrines, it is also true of its facts. A distinguished author has 

* The Jokdan and the Rhine, by the Rev. "W. Graham, p. 4. 



6 PREFACE. 

aptly said: "In studying the Bible the Dictionary of Things is almost as 
important as the Dictionary of "Words." It is a part of this " Dictionary of 
Tilings " that we propose to furnish in this book, though not in the form of 
a dictionary. The texts illustrated are arranged in the order in which they 
occur in the Bible, and are accompanied by explanations of the customs to 
which they allude. This method seems to be the most natural for Bible 
study, and is the plan followed by Burder, Bosenmiiller, and Roberts. 

The materials for a work of this character are more abundant now than 
ever. Supplementing the labors of those who in former days visited Egypt 
and Syria, travelers have, within a few years, entered new regions and 
brought to light facts hitherto unknown. The explorations of such men as 
Botta, Layard, Loftus, and Smith, and the labors of the Palestine Exploration 
Societies, both of England and America, have been productive of rich results, 
and, without doubt, results yet more valuable are to follow. The pick and 
the spade are to be the humble instruments of illustrating and authenti- 
cating the Word of God. Already, through their agency, important dis- 
coveries have been made. Ancient tablets covered with strange characters 
have been brought to light; by patient labor and wonderful ingenuity these 
characters have been deciphered, and made to tell the secrets which for 
ages they had kept concealed. The tombs of Egypt, the palaces of Assyria, 
and the royal records of Moab, have been compelled to speak, and now, in 
different languages, they bear testimony for God and his truth. 

Of this varied and valuable material we have endeavored to make diligent 
use in the preparation of this volume. As it would encumber the work 
with multitudinous notes of reference to give, in every instance, the authority 
for the statements made, a list of the principal authors consulted is appended. 

Should this volume aid the student in obtaining a better understanding of 
the Bible, the labor of the writer will not have been in vain. 

Morristowx, N. J., January 29, 1874. 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES 

CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OP THIS VOLUME. 



In addition to those commentaries, books of travel, and other works 
which are specially mentioned where they are quoted, the materials for this 
volume have been obtained chiefly from the following authorities : 

Alford, Dr. Henry — G-reek Testament. Four volumes. London, 1872. 
Anderson, Rev. Joseph — Bible Light from Bible Lands. New York, 18b6. 
Ayre, Rev. John — The Treasury of Bible Knowledge. London, 1870. 
Bingham, Rev. Joseph — Origines Ecclesiasticce. The Antiquities of the 

Christian Church. Two volumes. London, 1870. 
Bloomfield, Dr. S. T. — Greek Testament. Two volumes. Ninth edition. 

London, 1855. 
Bonomi, Joseph — Nineveh and its Palaces. London, 1865. 
Brown, Dr. "William — Antiquities of the Jews. London, 1820. 
Bcrder, Rev. Samuel — Oriental Customs. Two volumes. Sixth edition. 

London, 1822. 
Burder, Rev. Samuel — Oriental Literature. Two volumes. London, 1822. 
Bush, Rev. George — Illustrations of the Holy Scriptures. Philadelphia, 

1848. 
Calmet — Dictionary of the Holy Bible, (Ed., Taylor.) Five volumes. Fourth 

edition. London, 1823. 
Chardin, John — Travels into Persia and the East Indies. London, 1636. 
Faber, Dr. G. S. — The Origin of Pagan Idolatry, ascertained from Histori- 
cal Testimony and Circumstantial Evidence. Three volumes. London, 

1816. 
Fairbairn, Dr. Patrick — The Imperial Bible Dictionary. Two volumes. 

London, 1864, 1866. 
Fairbairn, Dr. Patrick: — The Typology of Scripture. Two volumes. 

Third edition. Philadelphia, 1865. 
Forbes. James — Oriental Memoirs. Four volumes. London, 1813. 
Gale. Rev. Theophilus — The Court of the Gentiles. Oxford, 1672. 



Q LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 

Godwyx, Dr. Thomas — Moses and Aaron ; or, The Civil and Ecclesiastical 
Rites used by the Ancient Hebrews. London, 1678. 

Graham, Rev. William — The Jordan and the Rhine. Londou, 1854. 

Hackett, Dr. H. B. — Illustrations of Scripture. Boston, 1855. 

Harmer, Rey. Thomas — Observations on Various Passages of Scripture. 
(Ed., Dr. Clarke.) Four volumes. Fourth edition. London, 1808. 

Hexgstenberg, E. W. — Egypt and the Books of Moses. Translated by 
Prof. Bobbins. Andover, 1843. 

Herzog, Dr. — Real-Encyklopadie. (Twenty-two volumes.) Hamburg, 
Stuttgart, and G-otha, 1854-1868. 

Jahx — Biblical Archaeology. Translated by Prof. Upbam. Fifth edition. 
New York. 1866. 

Jamiesox. Rev. Robert — Eastern Manners illustrative of Old Testament 
History. Two volumes. Edinburgh, 1836, 1838. 

Jkxxixgs. Dr. David — Jewish Antiquities. Tenth edition. London, 1839. 

Jowett, Rev.. AY. — Christian Researches in Syria and the Holy Land. Bos- 
ton, 1826. 

Keil, Dr. Karl Friehrich — Handbuch der biblischen Archaologie. (Two 
volumes.) Frankfurt-am-Main and Erlangen, 1858, 1859. 

Kitto, Dr. John — A Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, (Ed., Dr. Alexander.) 
Three volumes. Third edition. Philadelphia, 1866. 

Kitto. Dr. John — Daily Bible Illustrations. Eight volumes. New York, 1867. 

Kurtz, Dr. J. H. — Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament. Translated 
by Martin. Edinburgh, 1873. (Clark's Foreign Theological Library.) 

Laxe. E. W. — An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern 
Egyptians. Two volumes. Third edition. London, 1842. 

La yard. H. A. — Nineveh and its Remains. Two volumes. London, 1849. 

Layard, H. A. — Monuments of Nineveh. London, 1849. 

Layard, H. A. — Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon. Lon- 
don, 1853. 

Layard, H. A. — Monuments of Nineveh. Second series. London, 1853. 

Lightfoot, Dr. Johx — Works, (Ed., Pitman.) Twelve volumes. London, 
1823. 

Loftus, W. K. — Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana. New- 
York, 1857. 

Maddex, F. W. — History of Jewish Coinage, and of Money in the Old and 
New Testament. London, 1864. 

Maimoxides — The Reasons of the Laws of Moses. Translated by Dr Town- 
ley. London, 1827. 

Mauxdrell, Hexry — A Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter. 
A. D. 1697. London, 1810. (This edition contains Pitts' Religion and 
Manners of the Mahometans, to which we refer in several instances.) 



LIST OF AUTHORITIES. 9 

M'Clintock and Strong — Cyclopasdia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesias- 
tical Literature. Five volumes, [A to Ma] New York, 1867-1813. 
[Not yet completed.] 

Meyer, Johann Friedrich — Bibeldeutungen. Frankfurt-am-Main, 1812. 

Michjslis, J. D. — Commentaries on the Laws of Moses. Four volumes. 
London, 1814. 

Morier, James — Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor. 
London, 1818. 

Morrison, Walter (Editor)— The Recovery of Jerusalem. (Palestine Ex- 
ploration Fund.) New York, 1871. 

Nichols, T. A. — Handy-Book of the British Museum. London, 1870. 

Palmer, E. H. — The Desert of the Exodus. Two volumes. Cambridge, 
(England,) 1871. 

Porter, Rev. J. L. — The Giant Cities of Bashan and Syria's Holy Places. 
New York, 1866. 

Rawlinson, G. — The History of Herodotus. Four volumes. London, 
1858-1860. 

Rawlinson, G-. — The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern "World. 
Three volumes. Second edition. London, 1871. 

Roberts, Rev. J. — Oriental Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures. Lon- 
don, 1844. 

Robinson, Dr. E. — Biblical Researches in Palestine and in the Adjacent 
Regions. Three volumes. Second edition. Boston, 1856. 

Rogers, Miss Mary E. — Domestic Life in Palestine. Cincinnati, 1869. 

Rosenmuller, E. F. K. — Das alte und neue Morgenland. (Six volumes.) 
Leipzig, 1818-1820. 

Sharpe, Samuel — Texts from the Holy Bible explained by the Help of the 
Ancient Monuments. Second edition. London, 1869. 

Shaw, Dr. Thomas — Travels ; or, Observations relating to Several Parts of 
Barbary and the Levant. Second edition. London, 1757. 

Smith, Dr. William — A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Third 
American edition. New York, 1855. 

Smith, Dr. William— A Dictionary of the Bible. Three volumes. Bos- 
ton, 1863. 

Thomson, Dr. W. M. — The Land and the Book. Two volumes. New York, 
1860. 

Wilkinson, J. G. — Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Three 
volumes. London, 1837. 

Wilkinson, J. G. — A Second Series of the Manners and Customs of the 
Ancient Egyptians. Three volumes. London, 1841. 

Winer, Dr. G. B. — Biblisches Realwcerterbuch. (Two volumes. Third 
edition.) Leipzig. 1847, 1848. 



LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 



No. Page. 

Oriental Street Scene, {Front.). . 2 

1. Babylonian Brick 14 

2. The name Pharaoh, (Pa-ouro) 15 

3. Oriental Bowing 17 

4. City Gate 20 

5. Weighing Money 23 

6. Lion- weight. From Khorsabad 24 

7. At the Well 27 

8. Nose-rings of Modern Egypt 29 

9. Assyrian and Egyptian Brace- 

lets 30 

10. Teraphim 38 

11. Camels' Furniture 40 

1 2. Egyptian Ear-ring Amulets . 42 

13. A Caravan 44 

14. Egyptian Barbers 47 

15. Egyptian Kings and Signets 48 

16. Egyptian Granary 49 

1 7. Modern Egyptians at Dinner. 51 

18. Egyptian Divining Cup 53 

19. Different Stages of Embalming 57 

20. Ancient Egyptian Funeral 

Procession 59 

21. Shoes Taken Off 61 

22. Egyptian Brick 62 

23. Kneading Trough 65 

24. Egyptian War-chariot 66 

25. Calf Idol 75 

26. The Tabernacle, according to 

Paine 77 

27. Tabernacle Curtains 78 

28. Table of Show-bread 80 

29. Golden Candlestick 81 

30. Altar of Incense 81 



No. page 

31. Altar of Burnt-offering, ac- 

cording to Meyer 82 

32. High-Priest in his Robes ... 85 

33. Arab Oven 89 

34. Egyptian Standards 98 

35. The Staff of Inheritance 99 

36. Egyptian Bedsteads 104 

37. Ancient Axes 109 

33. The Outer Garment 113 

39. Ancient Egyptians Threshing 114 

40. Egyptian God Horus 117 

41. Assyrian King placing Foot 

on the Neck of an Enemy. . 119 

42. Symbolic Tree 121 

43. Egyptian Wooden Lock and 

Key 122 

44. Camels' Ornaments 125 

45. Dagon 126 

46. Outer Garment of Women. . 130 

47. Talismanic Images 132 

48. Ancient Helmets 133 

49. Egyptian Cuirass 133 

50. Greave 134 

51. Egyptian Large Shield 135 

52. Assyrian Large Shield 135 

53. Egyptian Swords 136 

54. Egyptian Slinger 137 

55. Egyptian Armlets 142 

56. Sistrum 143 

57. Solomon's Temple, Front Ele- 

vation 155 

58. Solomon's Temple, West End 155 

59. Solomon's Temple, Interior 

View. (From Paine) 155 



LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 



11 



No. 
60. 
61. 
62. 
63. 
64. 
65. 

66. 
67. 
68. 
69 
70. 

71. 
72. 
73. 

74. 
75. 
76. 
77. 
78. 
79. 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83. 
84. 

85. 

86. 
87. 
88. 

89. 



91. 
92. 
93. 



Page 

RuDning Footrnau 162 

Ancient Military Girdles. . . 164 

Egyptian Signet Rings 166 

Seal, with Frame 166 

The Fly-God 167 

Modern Syrian House — In- 
terior, showing the Divan. . 168 
Mode of WashiDg Hands. . . 170 

Amphorae 171 

Two styles of Eye-Painting. . 175 
Kohl Boxes and Implements. 176 
Assyrian and Egyptian Quiv- 
ers and Bows 178 

Blinding a Prisoner 185 

Bronze Fetters from Nineveh .185 
Walls and Towers, from Bab- 
ylonian Coins 188 

Towers in the Deseit 190 

Persian Daric. ... 192 

The Royal Cup-bearer 1 94 

Ground-plan of House 198 

Court of a House, Damascus. 199 

Convex Shield 210 

Ancient Oil Presses 214 

Impressions of Seals 215 

Watered Garden 217 

Anointing a Guest 219 

Assyrian Triangular Lyre. 

(Koyunjik) 221 

Assyrian Lyre, with Ten 

strings. (Khorsabad) 222 

Indian Serpent-Charmers. . . 225 

Ancient Egyptian Snares. . . 228 
Egyptian Offerings for the 

Dead 230 

Eunuch Playing on Cym- 
bals. (Koyunjik) 234 

Lot-Compass 238 

Egyptian Mortar 240 

Pitching Tents 243 

Neck- Chains, Assyrian and 

Egyptian 246 



No. Page 

94. Litter or Palanquin, Egyptian 247 

95. Ancient Egyptian Anklets. 250 

96. Assyrian Nets for the Hair. 250 

97. ''Houses of the Soul " 252 

98. Head-dress 253 

99. Ancient Egyptian mode of 

Wearing the Hair 254 

100. Assyrian Skin-boat 257 

101. Corinthian Tomb at Petra. . 260 

102. Plan of the Tomb of the 

Kings, at Jerusalem 260 

1 03. Keys Carried on the Shoulder 263 

104. Threshing with the Mowrej, 

Modern Egypt 265 

105. Parchment Scroll 267 

106. Men Bridled 268 

107. Xebo. Statue in British 

Museum 271 

10S. Egyptian mode of Carrying 

Children 273 

109. The Arm made Bare 274 

1 1 0. Perfume Sprinkler 275 

111. Egyptian Satrap Worship- 

ing the Sun 277 

112. Pigeon Towers in Persia . . 278 

113. Hands on the Head 281 

114. Egyptian Bellows 282 

115. Egyptian Potters 285 

116. Ceiling of Palace at Konieh. 287 

117. Amon 292 

118. Submission 294 

119. Egyptian Battle-axes 294 

120. Assyrian Clay Tablets 296 

121. Assault on a City — Artifi- 

cial Mount 297 

122. Battering-rams 298 

123. Inkhorn 301 

124. Assyrian Fringed Dress. . . 307 

125. Babylonian Harp 311 

126. Musician Playing the Dulci- 

mer, Assyrian 312 

127. Assyrian Drinking-scene . . 323 



12 



LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. 



No. 
128. 



129. 

130. 

131. 
132. 
133. 
134. 
135. 
136. 

137. 
138. 
139. 
140. 

141. 

142. 

143. 
144. 

145. 



Page 
Assyrian War-chariot of the 

Early Period. (Nimrud) . . 324 
Head of a Chariot-horse, 

with Bel's 328 

Ancient Egyptian Fullers at 

Work 329 

Chaldean Diviner 331 

Ancient Lamp 336 

Ancient Lamp-stand 336 

Rolling up a Bed 343 

Ancient Skin-bottles 344 

Woman giving Drink to a 

Child 344 

Ancient Shoe 346 

Assarion 348 

Denarius of Tiberius Cesar. 357 
Half-shekel. Ascribed to 

Simon Maccabeus 359 

Wine-press, Ancient Egyp- 
tian 362 

Phylacteries for the Head 

and Arm 367 

Sheik's Tomb 371 

Ground-plan of Herod's 

Temple 372 

Section of Eastern Hand-mill 375 



No. Pape 

146. Women at the Mill 376 

147. Marriage Procession 377 

148. Torches 377 

149. Alabastra 380 

150. Reclining at Table 382 

151. Buffeting the Accused 390 

152. Door of the Tomb 396 

153. Writing Tablets 405 

154. Interior of Yizir Khan at 

Aleppo 407 

155. Diagram of Caravanserai. . 408 

156. Women Drawing Water. . . 424 

157. Sheep-fold 428 

158. Women Mourning at the 

Grave 433 

159. Lantern 435 

160. Housetop 440 

161. Sandal 442 

162. In the Stocks 445 

163. Diana of Ephesus 451 

164. Enemies Trampled on 459 

165. Ancient Foot-race 466 

166. Head Dress of Roman 

Empress 469 

167. Plaited Hair of Roman 

Lady 469 



HAND-BOOK 

OF 

BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 



GENE SIS. 



1.— USE OF THE TERM FATHER. 

IV, 20, 21. Adah bare Jabal : he was the father of such as dwell 
in tents, and of such as have cattle. And his brother's name 
was Jubal : he was the father of all such as handle the harp 
and organ. 

IN the East the originator of any custom is frequently spoken of as the 
" father " of that custom ; so, also, a man is often described by represent- 
ing him to be the ''father" of some peculiarity which distinguishes him 
from others. A man of very long beard is called "the father of a beard." 
One of the Arabs who accompanied Palmer in his journey across the desert 
of the Exodus was called "the father of the top-knot," because the lock of 
hair on top of his head was of unusual size. A celebrated Arab chief was 
called "the father of the ostrich." because of the fleetness of the favorite 
horse which he rode. Dr. Thomson was once called by the mischievous 
young Arabs " the father of a saucepan," because they fancied that his black 
hat resembled that culinary utensil. When Loftus was in Chaldea his negro 
cook on one occasion killed two lion cubs. The Arabs, from that time forth, 
saluted him as "Abu Seba'in," that is, "the father of the two lions." 

The name " father " is also applied to beasts or birds, and even to inani- 
mate things. In Egypt the kite is sometimes called " the father of the air," 
because of its power of flight. An African city was called Boo Hadgar, 
" the father of stone " — that is, a stony city. There is a Turkish coin called 
"the father of a cannon," because of the representation of a cannon which 
is upon it. 

In like manner Jabal was called " the father of such as dwell in tents," 
because he was probably the inventor of tents; and Jubal, " the father of all 
such as handle the harp and organ," because he invented those instruments. 

This use of the term " father " is found, also, in other parts of the Bible. 



14 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

In lea. ix, 6, the Messiah is called " the everlasting Father," or " the Father of 
eternity; " that is, he is the giver of eternal life: in John viii, 44, the devil is 
called "the father of lies ; " in Rom. iv. 12, Abraham is said to be "the father 
of circumcision;" in 2 Cor. i, 3, God is called "the father of mercies;'' 
and in Eph. i, 17, "the father of glory.'' There is a corresponding use of 
the word children. See note on Matt. ix. ] 5. 

2.— BABYLONIAN BRICKS— BITUMEN. 

XI, 3. They said, one to another, Go to, let us make briek, and 
burn them thoroughly. And they had briek for stone, and 
slime had they for mortar. 

1. The soil of Babylonia is an alluvial deposit, rich and tenacious, and well 
adapted for brick-making. "While many of the bricks of that country were 

merely sun-dried, others were burned, as 
were those in the tower of Babel. Fire- 
burnt bricks were sometimes laid as an 
outer covering to walls of sun-dried 
brick. The finest quality of bricks was 
of a yellow color, resembling our fire- 
bricks ; another very hard kind was of a 
dark blue; the commoner and coarser 
sorts were pink or red. 

Amid the ruins of Babylonia ancient 
bricks have been discovered, in large 
-Babylonian- Beick. quantities, stamped with inscriptions of 

great value to the archasologist. The ordinary size of these bricks is twelve 
to fourteen inches square, and three to four inches thick. At the corners 
of buildings half-bricks were used in the alternate rows. 

2. The " slime " here spoken of is bitumen, which is still found bubbling 
from the ground in the neighborhood of ancient Babylon, where it is now 
used for mortar, as in former times. It is also found in some parts of Pales- 
tine. At Hasbeiya, near the source of the Jordan, there are wells or pits 
dug, in which bitumen collects, exuding from the crevices in the rocks. The 
"slime-pits" mentioned in Gen. xiv, 10, may have been similar to these. 
They were near the Dead Sea, where bitumen is still to be found. 

Loftus {Travels in Chaldea and Susiana, p. 31) approves the suggestion 
of Captain Newbold, that the ancient Babylonians in some instances burned 
their bricks in the walls of their buildings, to render them more durable. 
The rude walls, erected with unburnt brick, cemented with hot bitumen, are 
supposed to have been exposed to the action of a furnace heat until they 
became a solid vitrified mass. This is indeed burning "thoroughly," and 
it may have been the method which the Babel-builders intended to ptii\=iie 





Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 15 

had they been permitted to finish their tower: as they said, according to 
the marginal reading, " Let us make brick, and burn them to a burning." 

3.— PHARAOH. 
XII, 15. The princes also of Pharaoh, saw her. 
Pliaraoh is the common title of the native Egyptian kings 
mentioned in Scripture. The word itself does not mean king, 
as was formerly supposed ; recent investigations have satisfied 
Egyptologists that it means the sun. This title was given to 
the king because he was considered the representative on earth 
of the God RA, or the sun. It is difficult to tell what partic- 
ular Pharaoh or king is referred to here. 2.— Pa-ouro. 

4.— USE OF THE TERM BROTHER. 

XIV, 16. And also brought again his brother Lot. 

In chapter xi, 31 Lot is said to be the nephew, not the brother, of 
Abram. In like manner Jacob' told Rachel (Gen. xxix, 12) that he was 
her father's brother ; whereas, according to Gen. xxviii, 5, he was the 
son of her father's sister; that is, her father's nephew. This elastic use 
of the word brother is quite common in the East, however strange it 
may seem to us; yet we have a usage somewhat similar in the application of 
the term to persons not in any way related to us. We call fellow-country- 
men, or fellow-craftsmen, or fellow- churchmen, brothers. The Orientals 
apply the term to their kinsmen of whatever relation. 

5.— UPLIFTED HAND. 

XIV, 22. And Abram said to the king of Sodom, I have lift up 
mine hand unto the Lord, the most high God, the possessor of 
heaven and earth. 

This was Abram's method of taking a solemn oath : a mode still 
practiced in the East, and to some extent in the West. It is said in Isa. 
lxii, 8, " The Lord hath sworn by his right hand." See also Dan. xii, 7 ; 
Rev. x, 5, 6; the note on Prov. xi, 21 ; and also on Ezek. xxi, 14. 

6.— BURNING LAMP. 

XV, 17. And it came to pass, that, when the sun went down, 
and it was dark, behold a smoking furnace, and a burning 
lamp that passed between those pieces. 

The " burning lamp " is supposed to have been an emblem of the Divine 
presence, as fire is represented to be in other parts of the Scriptures. 
Roberts says that in India the burning lamp or fire is still used in confirma- 
tion of a covenant. If one's promise is doubted he will point to the flame 
of the lamp, saying, "That is the witness." The marriages of the East 
Indian gods and demi-gods are described as being performed in the presence 



16 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. IGen.sis. 

of the God of lire; and it is to this day a general practice at the celebration 
of a marriage to have tire as a witness of the transaction. i: Fire is the 
witness of their covenant, and, if they break it, fire will be their destruction." 
— Orient. Illus., p. 21. 

7.— RELIGION OF NAMES. 
XVI, 13. And. she called, the name of the Lord that spake unto 
her, Thou God seest me. 

One of the most prevalent superstitions in Egypt was connected with the 
religion of names. The Egyptians gave to each of their gods a name in- 
dicative of specific office and attributes. It was thus perfectly natural that 
Hagar, who was an Egyptian, should give a title of honor to Him who ap- 
peared to her in the wilderness. Some suppose that the Israelites were in- 
fluenced by this superstition during their long bondage in Egypt, and that it 
is to this that Moses refers in Exod. iii, 13 ; and, further, that out of indul- 
gence to this weakness God was pleased to give himself a name — one ex- 
pressive of his eternal self-existence, Exo3. iii, 14. This ancient Egyptian 
custom found its way to other nations. Zechariah, alluding to this, speaks 
of the time when "there shall be one Lord, and his name one." Zech. xiv. 9. 

8.— TENT DOOR— TIME OF REST. 
XVIII, 1. And he sat in the tent door in the heat of the day. 

1. The " door of the tent" is a fold of the lower part, of the tent, which 
is fastened by a loop to the post near by. It may thus be opened or closed 
at pleasure. For the sake of light and air, it is generally thrown back 
during the day. 

2. Noon is the hour of rest among the Orientals. ■ TVhen the sun is at its 
height the wind often becomes softer and the heat more oppressive. Then 
the dwellers in tents may be seen sitting 1; in the door." or reclining in the 
shade of the tent. It is also the hour for dinner. See Gen. xliii, 16. 25. 
Some travelers say that the Arabs eat by the door of the tent in order to 
notice the stranger passing by, and to invite him to eat with them. In the 
case mentioned in the text Abraham had probably dined, and was resting 
after dinner. 

9.— BOWING— HOSPITALITY. 

XVIII, 2, 3. And when he saw them, he ran to meet them from 

the tent door, and bowed himself toward the ground, and said, 

My Lord, if now I have found favor in thy sight, pass not away, 

I pray thee, from thy servant. 

1. There are different modes of bowing in the East. In this case the word 
used (shachah) denotes complete prostration of the body. In this the 
person falls upon the knees, and then gradually inclines the body until the 
head touches the ground. See also Gen. xxiii, T. 12; xlii, 6: xliii, 26. 



Genesis.] 



BIBLK MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



17 



2. There is in this text a beautiful illustration of Oriental hospitality. The 
company of the travelers is solicited as a personal favor to the host, and all 
the resources ofthees- ^-r- -~~- 

tablishment are used /.;■ --: : ■ ky •„"" '- J * '■'■-'"<■, ;-:":;/" 

for their entertainment. ^ k::\' v//-:--'M". . " "■ ' i ■.-.--k'y 

See Gen. xix, 2, 3 ; 
Judges vi, 18; xiii, 15 ; 
Job xxxi, 32. Modern 
travelers often refer to 
the earnestness with 
which this hospitality 
is urged upon them at. 
the present day. It is 
not always, however, 
to be regarded as un- 
selfish; in many in- 
stances a return be- 
ing expected from the 
traveler who is thus 
entertained. A recent 
writer says, " Arabs 
are still as fond as 
ever of exercising the 
virtue of hospitality. 
As they practice it, 
it is a lucrative spec- 
ulation. The Bedawi sheikh, knowing that he must not nowadays expect 
to entertain angels unawares, takes a special care to entertain only such 
as can pay a round sum for the accommodation, or give their host a good 
dinner in return. The casual and impecunious stranger may, it is true, 
claim the traditional three days' board and lodging; but he must be content 
with the scraps 'that fall from the rich man's table,' and prepare to hear 
very outspoken hints of the undesirability of his presence." — Palmer's 
Desert of the Exodus, p. 486. 




I. — Oriental Bowing. (See p. 16.) 



10— FEET-WASHING. 
XVIII, 4. Let a little water, I pray you, be fetched, and. wash 
your feet, and rest yourselves under the tree. 

"Where the soil is dry and dusty, and the feet shod with sandals, frequent 
washing of the feet becomes not only a luxury, but a necessity for comfort and 
health. It is as much a part of hospitality, under these circumstances, for a 
host to see that his guests' feet are washed, as it is to provide them with 



IS BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Genesis. 



food, or to furnish them a place for repose. See Gen. xxiv, 32. The steward 
of Joseph gave to Joseph's brethren water for their feet. Gen. xliii, 24. 
Among the ancient Egyptians the basins kept in the houses of the rich for 
this purpose were sometimes of gold. 

To this custom of feet-washing the Saviour refers when he mildly reproves 
Simon the Pharisee, at whose house he was a guest, for neglecting to give 
him water for this purpose. Luke vii, 44. Paul, when writing to Tinothy 
concerning the qualifications necessary for the aged widows who are to be 
recipients of the charity of the Church, names this among others: "if she 
have washed the saints' feet." 1 Tim. v, 10. This work was the duty of a 
servant, (see 1 Sam. xxv, 41 ;) and it is this fact which gives force to the 
beautiful symbolic action of our Lord, as recorded in John xiii, 4-15. The 
Master of all became a servant to all. 

Feet were washed on returning from a journey and on retiring to bed. 
See Gen. xix, 2 ; 2 Sam. xi, 8; Sol. Song v, 3. 

11.— BREAD MAKING. 
XVIII, 6. And Abraham hastened, into the tent unto Sarah, 
and said, Make ready quickly three measures of fine meal, 
knead it, and make cakes upon the hearth. 

1. Bread in the East is made from wheat or barley, rye being but little 
cultivated. The "fine meal" here spoken of is wheat flour finely sifted, and 
is considered very choice. 

2. The "three measures" were equal to an ephah, which is supposed to 
have contained a little less than a bushel. It was an ordinary quantity for 
baking. See Judges vi, 19; 1 Sam. i, 24; Matt, xiii, 33. The seali or 
"measure" is also mentioned in 2 Kings vii, 1, 16. 

3. From the haste with which this bread was prepared it was evidently 
unleavened. The flour and water were hastily mixed, and the thin dough 
was either laid on heated stones, where the cakes would soon bake, or the 
"hearth" in the text was a smooth spot of ground on which fire had been 
kindled and the embers brushed off, when the dough was placed on the 
ground and the embers raked over it. In either way the bread would 
soon be ready for the guests. See also 1 Kings xvii, 12, 13; xix, 6. 

Palmer, while visiting the outlying districts of Sinai, found, upon the 
watershed of Wady el-Hebeibeh, the remains of a large and evidently 
ancient encampment. "The small stones which formerly served, as they 
do in the present day, for hearths, in many places still showed signs of the 
action of fire, and on digging beneath the surface we found pieces of char- 
coal in great abundance." — Desert of (he Exodios, p. 258. "What gives peculiar 
interest to this discovery is the fact that Mr. Palmer thinks that he here 
discovered the remains of the ancient Israelitish camp at Kibroth-Hatta- 



Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 19 

avah. A detail of the reasoning by which he reaches this conclusion would 
be out of place here. The curious reader is referred to Palmer's interesting 
work, pp. 260, 312, 507, 508. 

12.— HOSTS— FLESH FOOD. 
XYIII, 7. Abraham ran unto the herd, and. fetched a calf . . . 
and gave it unto a young man ; and he hasted to dress it. 

1. The primitive manner in which Abraham and Sarah personally attended 
to the wants of their guests, finds illustration in what Dr. Shaw says of the 
Arab chieftains in Barbary. There the greatest prince is not ashamed to 
bring a lamb from the flock and kill it, while the princess, his wife, prepares 
the fire and cooks it. 

2. This meat was cooked as .soon as the animal was killed, in accordance 
with the oriental usage. A common method of preparing a hasty meal 
among the Arabs is to cut up the meat into small pieces, run them on small 
spits or skewers, and broil them over the fire. 

1 3.— BUTTER— FEASTS. 
XVIII, 8. And he' took butter, and milk, and the calf which he 
had dressed, and set it before them ; and he stood by them 
under the tree, and they did eat. 

1. The word here rendered butter (chemah) is said usually to signify 
curdled milk. It is also supposed that it was this which Jael gave to Sisera 
"in a lordly dish." Judges v. 25. It is at this day frequently used in east- 
ern countries under the name of leben. 

2. A description of an Arab feast, as given by modern travelers, will 
illustrate the mode of preparing and eating food. The meat is boiled with 
camel's milk, and with wheat which has been pr&viously boiled and then 
dried in the sun. It is served up in a large wooden dish, in the center of 
which the boiled wheat is placed, and the meat around the edge. A wooden 
bowl containing the melted fat of the animal is pressed down in the midst 
of 'the boiled wheat, and every morsel is dipped into this melted fat before 
being swallowed- A bowl of camel's milk is handed round after the meal. 

It is not certain that milk was formerly used in cooking meat, as is here 
seen to be the modern Bedawin custom. 

3. It is common still in the East to see travelers and guests eating under 
the shade of trees. 

14.— TENT PARTITION. 
XVIIT, 10." Sarah heard it in the tent-door . . . behind him. 
This was not the tent door referred to in verse 1, but the partition separat- 
ing the women's part of the tent from that belonging to the men. Such 
partitions are often seen in modern Bedawfn tents. For description of these 
tents, see note on Solomon's Song i, 5. 

2 




20 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

15.— GATES. 
XIX, 1. And Lot sat in the gate of Sodom. 

The gateways of walled cities, as well as the open spaces near them, were 
popular places of resort, being vaulted and cool, and convenient for the 
meeting of friends, or for a view of strangers, since all who went in or out 

must pass that way. They often re- 
sembled large stone halls, and had 
sufficient area to accommodate large 
assemblages. There the people as- 
sembled at the close of the day to tell 
the news, and to discuss various topics 
of interest. Thus it was that Lot at 
evening happened to be in the city 
gate when the strangers came by. 
In this position he readily saw them as 
they entered. Allusion to this use of 
4.— City Gate. tlie £ ate ma . y be* found in numerous 

other passages See Gen. xxiii, 10; 
xxxiv, 20; 1 Sam. iv. 13; Job xxix, 7; Psa. lxix, 12; cxxvii, 5; Prov. i, 21. 
Other uses of the gate will be noticed further on. 

16.— TOWN-QUARTERS. 
XIX, 4. But before they lay down, the men of the city, even 
the men of Sodom, compassed the house round, both old and 
young, all the people from every quarter. 

In Eastern cities there are different quarters where people live according 
to their nation, religion, or occupation. These quarters are named after the 
occupants: as "The Christian quarter," "The Jews' quarter," "The 
Franks' quarter," " The quarter of the water-carriers," and the like. This 
usage may have existed at a very early age, and if so, it probably is re- 
ferred to in the text. The merchants and tradesmen of Sodom came from 
the different "quarters" where they lived and surrounded Lot's house. 
There may also be a reference to this custom in Isa. xlvii, 15 ; Ivi, 11. In 
Jer. xxxvii, 21, "the bakers' street" is spoken of. 

17.— LOOKING BEHIND. 
XIX, 26. But his wife looked back from behind him,, and she 
became a pillar of salt. 

1. Roberts says, that the expression "from behind him," seems to imply 
that she was following her husband, which to this day is the custom in India. 

2. He also states that when men or women leave the house they never 
look back, as " it would be very unfortunate." Should a man on going to 



Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 21 

his work leave any thing which his wife knows he will require, she will not 
call after him lest he turn or look back, but will either take the article her- 
self or send it by another. If a palankeen come up behind any persons 
who are walking in the road they will not look behind to see it, but carefully 
step a little on one side until it has passed, when they will gratify their 
curiosity. 

1 §.— CAVE-DWELLINGS. 
XIX, 30. He [Lot] dwelt in a eave, he and. his two daughters. 

The country of Judea being mountainous aud rocky is full of caverns. 
Caves and clefts in the rock were probably among the earliest dwelling- 
places of man. The inhabitants of Mount Taurus, even to this day, live 
in caves, as do mam* of the wandering shepherds of Arabia Petrea. Thus 
Lot found a home for himself and his daughters. Some of these caves are 
of immense size, capable of holding hundreds, and even thousands, of 
people, and might easily be converted into strongholds for troops. It was 
in this way that the children of Israel sheltered themselves from the 
Midianites, (Judges vi, 2,) and from the Philistines, 1 Sam. xiii, 6. It was 
thus that David, with four hundred men, was concealed in the cave Adul- 
lam, (1 Sam. xxii, 1, 2,) and afterward with six hundred in Ziph, and in 
En-gedi, 1 Sam. xxiii, 13, 14, 29; xxiv, 3. Caves have been common places 
of resort for the persecuted people of God in all ages. See Heb. xi, 38. 

19.— WEANING-FEAST. 

XXI, 8. Abraham made a great feast the same day that Isaac 
was weaned. 

It is still customary in the East to have a festive gathering at the time 
a child is weaned. Among the Hindoos, when the time for weaning has 
come, the event is accompanied with feasting and religious ceremonies 
during which rice is formally presented to the child. 

20.— BURDEN ON SHOULDER. 
XXI, 14. Putting it on her shoulder. 

It was an ancient Egyptian custom for the women to carry burdens on 
the shoulder, and for the men to carry them on the head. The women in 
Palestine, to this day, carry the water skins and earthen jars upon the 
shoulder. It was thus that Rebecca carried her water pitcher. Gen. 
xxiv, 15. Sometimes they carry these jars on the head. It is said by some 
writers, that in India the women of high rank carry the water jars on the 
shoulder, and the common women carry them on the head. 



22 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

21.— EARLY RISING— SADDLES. 
XXII, 3. Abraham rose up early . . . and. saddled his ass. 

1. The habit of early rising is all but universal in Palestine. The climate 
makes this a necessity for the greater part of the year, the heat being so 
great that hard labor is oppressive a few hours after .sunrise. At early 
dawn laborers go to their work and travelers start on their journeys. The 
Scripture references to this custom are numerous. See, for instance, G-en. 
xix, 2; xxi, 14; xxviii, 18; Exod. xxxiv, 4; Job i, 5; Psa. lxiii, 1. 

2. We are not to imagine by the term "saddle" any thing similar to 
what we call by that name. The ancient saddle was merely a piece of 
cloth thrown over the back of the animal on which the rider sat. See Matt, 
xxi, 7. " No nation of antiquity knew the use of either saddles or stirrups." 
(Gqguet, Origin of Laws. Cited by Burder.) 

22.— GOING AND COMING. 

XXII, 5. I and the lad will go . . . and come again. 

Roberts says, that the people of the East never say, as we do when taking 
leave, " I will go," or, " I am going," but, " I go and return." 

23.— CEREMONIAL MOURNING. 

XXIII, 2. Abraham came to mourn for Sarah, and to weep 
for her. 

We shall have occasion, in noticing other passages, to refer to the different 
modes of manifesting grief at times of bereavement ; it is only necessary to 
say here, that there is in this text an evident allusion to a ceremonial mourn- 
ing. The word " came" indicates this. The passage shows the antiquity of 
the custom of formal manifestation of sorrow in honor of the dead. 

24.— MODE OF BARGAINING. 
XXIII, 5, 6. The children of Heth answered Abraham, say- 
ing unto him, Hear us, my lord : thou art a mighty prince 
among us : in the choice of our sepulehers bury thy dead ; 
none of us shall withhold from thee his sepuleher, but that thou 
mayest bury thy dead. 

We have in the interesting narrative of this business transaction an exact 
representation of the Oriental mode of trafficking. Abraham, a great prince, 
but a stranger, wishes to buy a piece of land for a family burial place. He 
makes the proposition to those members of the tribe of Hittites in whose 
territory the land lies. They respond by offering him the use of any one of 
their own sepulehers which he may select. This generosity, however, is a 
mere ceremony preliminary to driving a bargain in which they mean to make 
as much as possible out of the rich stranger. So, also, when Ephron is 



Genesis.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



23 



approached in reference to selling the lot which Abraham desires, he says, 
(v, 11,) "Nay, my lord, hear me: the field give I thee, and the cave that is 
therein, I give it thee ; in the presence of the sons of my people give I it 
thee : bury thy dead." This seems to be a wonderful liberality on the part 
of this Hittite, but he does not expect that his offer will be accepted ; or, 
if actually accepted, he expects in return a present that shall be worth more 
than his gift. 

25.— MIDDLEMEN. 
XXIII, 8. Entreat for me to Ephron the son of Zohar. 
Abraham does not go directly to Ephron, but he gets some of the Hittites 
to plead for him. No business of importance can to this day be transacted 
in the East without middlemen. 

26.— HOW MONEY WAS USED. 
XXIII, 16. Abraham hearkened, unto Ephron ; and. Abraham 
weighed to Ephron the silver, which he had named in the 
audience of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, 
current money with the merchant. 

1. The Hebrews probably learned the use of metallic money from the 
Phenicians, among whom their ancestors dwelt, and who are said to have 
been the inventors of silver money. Other nations for a long time made 
oxen and sheep the standard of value. Silver was the metal at first gen- 
erally used for currency, gold being kept for articles of jewelry. G-old money 
is first men- 
tioned i n 1 
Chron. xxi, 25. 
though, of 
course, it may 
have been 
used before 
the time there 
referred t o . 
Some suppose 
that in early 
times gold 
jewelry was 
made of speci- 
fi e d weight, 
so that it 
might be used 
for money. 
See Gen. 
xxiv, 22. * _ Weighing Moxev. (See page 24.) 




24 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Genesis. 




6.— Lion- Weight. FbomKhorsabad. 



2. Ancient money, being uncoined, was weighed instead of beiDg counted. 
Even to this day Oriental merchants weigh the silver and gold which are the 
medium of traffic; not only the bullion, but the coined pieces also, lest some 
dishonest trader might pass upon them a coin of light weight. The ancient 
Egyptians, and some other nations, used rings of gold and of silver for the 
same purposes that coins are now used. These rings were weighed, the 

weights being in the form of 
oxen, lions, geese, sheep, and 
other animals. Some of these 
weights have been found ; they 
are made of bronze, and with 
a ring projecting from the back 
for a handle. 

The weighing of money is 
also referred to in Jer. xxxii, 
9, 10, and in Zech. xi, 12. 

3. The word shekel (from 
shakffl, to weigh) indicates the 
original mode of reckoning 
money by weight rather than 
by count; and when coined money was introduced it was natural that the 
name originally applied to what was w T eighed should be given to what was 
counted. Thus we find in the Bible a shekel of weight aud a shekel of 
money. The exact weight of the shekel is not known. It is estimated to 
have been between nine and ten pennyweights, and is supposed to have been 
worth nearly sixty cents. This would make the value of the field Abraham 
bought of Ephron nearly two hundred and forty dollars. 

4. The expression "current," seems to indicate some understood standard 
of value, either as to the purity of the silver or the weight, or both. " The 
Phenician merchants usually tried the silver themselves, and then, after 
dividing a bar into smaller pieces, put the mark upon them." (Michcelis.) 
There may also have been a mark on the bar or on the ring money to indi- 
cate its weight. 

27.— TRANSFER OF PROPERTY. 
XXIII, 17, 18. The field, of Ephron, which was in Maehpelah, 
which was before Mamre, the field, and the cave which was 
therein, and all the trees that were in the field, that were in all 
the borders round about, were made sure unto Abraham for a 
possession in the presence of the children of Heth, before all 
that went in at the gate of his city.. 

1. All the details of the contract are here given as is still customary in 
an Oriental bargain. Every thing appertaining to the lot is here put down ; 
field, cave, trees, every thing "in all the borders round about." Dr. Thorn- 



Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 25 

son says, ' : The contract must mention everything that belongs to it. (the 
lot,) and certify that fountains or wells in it, trees upon it, etc., are sold with 
the field. If you rent a house, not only the building itself, but every room 
in it, above and below, down to the kitchen, pantry, stable, and hen-coop, 
must be specified." — The Land and the Book, vol. ii, p. 383. 

2. There is no evidence here of any written contract, and probably there 
was none. The bargain was made " sure " by being consummated in the 
presence of the crowd assembled at the gate, as bargains often are now 
in the same country, the number of the witnesses precluding any with- 
drawing from the contract on either side. 

3. We may now notice the steps by which the end of this bargain was 
gradually reached. How much time was consumed we are not told, 
but that there was a great deal of talking there can be no doubt. The 
whole scene vividly illustrates what many modern travelers describe from 
their own observation. 1. Abraham asks the Hittites the privilege of buy- 
ing a place of burial, (verse 4.) 2. They offer him the free use of any one 
of their own sepulchers that he may choose, (verse 6.) 3. Abraham bows 
before them in acknowledgment of their courtesy, (verse 7.) 4. He asks them 
to use their influence with Ephron to effect a sale, (verse 8.) 5. Ephron 
offers to make him a present of the whole field and the cave, and calls on the 
people to be witnesses of his generosity and sincerity, (verse 11.) 6. Abra- 
ham bows again before them, (verse 12.) 7. He declines to take it as a gift, 
and offers to pay for it, (verse 13.) (See a parallel instance in 1 Chron. xxi, 
22-25 ) 8. Ephron names his price, (three or four times what the land was 
worth, if the ancient usages were the same as the modern,) and intimates 
that such a price is a small matter for so great a prince as he is dealing 
with, (verse 15.) 9. Abraham, not being in a condition to insist on lower 
terms, accepts the offer, (verse 16.) 10. The money is weighed, and the 
land becomes the property of Abraham, (verse 16.) 

2§.— CAVE SEPULCHERS. 
XXIII, 19. Abraham buried Sarah, his wife in the oave of the 
field, of Maehpelah. 

Sepulchral caves are still found in many parts of the East. Sometimes a 
natural cave is used, with such modifications as necessity may require. 
The place where Abraham buried Sarah was undoubtedly a natural cave. 
Tombs were frequently hewn out of the rock. See note on Isa. xxii. 16. 

29.— CHIEF SERVANT— MODE OF SWEARING. 
XXIV, 2, 3. Abraham said, unto his eldest servant . . . Put, I 
pray thee, thy hand under my thigh, and . . . swear, etc. 

1. The most intelligent and faithful servant in the household was ap- 
pointed overseer of the others. The word ''eldest" is not of necessity 



26 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis 

expressive of age, but of authority. This was the head servant, chief of all 
the rest, though some of them may have been over others. In a similar 
way we use the word "elder" in an official sense, even when applied to 
young men. Such head-servants or stewards may still be seen portrayed 
on Egyptian tombs, with their secretaries, implements of writing, stewards' 
account books, and articles for domestic use. This was the position which 
Joseph rilled. Gen. xxxix, 4. 

2. The mode of swearing here spoken of seems to have been peculiar to 
the patriarchs. Jacob required Joseph thus to swear to him. Gen. xlvii, 29. 
Various conjectures have been made as to the precise position of the hand 
or hands in taking this oath, for which, as well as for the supposed signifi- 
cance of the oath, commentators may be consulted. 

30.— BRIDE CHOSEN BY PARENTS. 
XXIV, 4. Thou shalt go unto my country, and to my kindred, 
and take a wife unto my son Isaac. 

The bridegroom does not make choice of his bride; the parents negotiate 
this important business between themselves, and the young people are ex- 
pected to acquiesce in the arrangement. In this instance Abraham sends a 
trusty servant hundreds of miles away to select for his son a wife whom he 
never saw. Hagar chose a wife for Ishmael. Gen. xxi, 21. Isaac gave 
command to Jacob on this important subject. Gen. xxviii, I. Judah selected 
a wife for Er. Gen. xxxviii, 6. Young men who chose wives for themselves 
without parental mediation usually afflicted their parents in so doing. Gen. 
xxvi, 35; xxvii, 46. The sons, however, had sometimes tie privilege of 
suggesting their personal preferences to their parents. Thus Shechem did 
(Gen. xxxiv, 4 ;) and also Samson. Judges xiv, 2. 

31.— WELLS. 
XXIV, 11. He made his camels to kneel down without the city 
by a welj of water at the time of the evening, even the time 
that women go out to draw water. 

" A modern guide-book could hardly furnish a truer picture of what oc- 
curs at the close of every day in the vicinity of Eastern villages than this 
description, written so many thousand years ago." — Hackett, Illustrations 
of Scripture, p. 89. 

1. The position of a camel when at rest is kneeling. These animals are 
taught it when young. 

2. Yillages are built near wells or springs for convenience, but not near 
enough to be discommoded by the noise and dust and crowds which are 
sure to be drawn to such places. 

3. The work of carrying water is done almost invariably by women, 




7.— At the Well. (Geu. xxiv, 11.) 



Genesis.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



29 



excepting in some large Oriental cities, where men as well as women become 
water carriers. See Gen. xxix, 10; Exod. ii, 16; 1 Sam. ix, 11. 

4. Evening and early morning are the usual times for visiting the well for 
a supply of water. 

32.— PITCHERS. 

XXIV, 15. "With, her pitcher upon her shoulder. 

The ancient pitchers were of earthenware. Lam. iv, 2. See also Judges 
vii, 20, where it is said that Gideon's men brake theirs. Such are used now 
for drawing water. Some have one handle, and others have two. 

33.— HOW WELLS ARE USED. 
XXIV, 16. She went down to the well, and filled her pitcher, 
and came up. 

The wells are usually approached by flights of steps, so that the women 
may dip their pitchers directly into the water. In some cases the wells are 
dug deep, and require a rope, or some simple machinery, for raising the 
water. See note on John iv, 11. 

34.— TROUGHS. 

XXIV, 20. She hasted, and emptied her pitcher into the trough. 

These troughs are placed near the wells for convenience in watering 
cattle. They are made of wood or stone. Sometimes a long stone block is 
hollowed out, from which a number of animals can drink at once; and some- 
times the troughs are smaller, several of them lying about the same well, 
each so small as to accommodate only one animal at a time. 

See also Gen. xxx, 38 ; Exod. ii, 16. 



35.— NOSE-JEWELS— BRACELETS. 
XXIV, 22. It came to pass, as the camels had done drinking, 
that the man took a golden ear-ring of half a shekel weight, 
and two bracelets for her hands of ten shekels weight of gold. 

1. The "ear-ring" here spoken of {nezem) is more properly a nose-ring. 
The servant says, (verse 47,) "I put the ear-ring upon her face." The pres- 
ent of a single ear- 
ring would be strange ; 
to put it on the face 
would be stranger still. 
Nose-jewels are refer- 
red to in Prov. xi, 22, 
Isa. hi, 21, and Ezek. 
xvi, 12, where for 
"forehead "in the text 
the margin has " nose." S.— So3E-nixGs of Modern Kovpt. (Half size. 




30 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Genesis. 



The nose-ring is made generally of silver or gold, but sometimes of coral, 
mother-of-pearl, or even of horn, according to the taste or means of the 
wearer. This curious ornament varies considerably in size and thickness. 
The metal rings are usually from one inch to oue inch and a half in diam- 
eter, and sometimes are as large as three inches. Beads, coral, or jewels, 
are strung upon them. They are usually hung from the right nostril, 
though sometimes from the left, and occasionally they are suspended from 
the middle filament of the nose. In India, according to Roberts, the nose- 
jewels are of different shapes, resembling a swan, a serpent, or a flower. 
Anderson saw them in Egypt, made of brass, but worn only by women of 
the lower class. Graham says that in Syria, as well as in Egypt, these 
ornaments are not worn among the respectable classes of society, but are 
found among the Africans and slaves ; so that the fashion seems to have 
changed since Rebekah's day, and since the time when Isaiah wrote. 

2. The weight of the nose-jewel given to Rebekah (a half shekel) was 
nearly a quarter of an ounce, troy. 

3. Bracelets are almost universally worn by women in the East. They 
are sometimes made of gold, sometimes of mother-of-pearl, but usually of 
silver. The poorer women wear them made of plated steel, horn, brass, 
copper, and occasionally nothing but simple strings of beads. The arms are 




9. — Assyrian Bracelets. 



Egyptian Bracelets. 



sometimes crowded with them from wrist to elbow. They are sometimes 
flat, but more frequently round or semicircular, and are often made hollow 
to give, by their bulk, the appearance of greater weight. Bracelets (tsemedim) 
are also referred to in Num. xxxi, 50; Ezek. xvi, 11; xxiii, 42. The other 
passages in which "bracelets" occur have different words in the original, 
which will be explained under the several texts where they are used. 

4. The weight of the bracelets presented to Rebekah (ten shekels) was over 
four and a half ounces. They are sometimes worn heavier than this, so as 
to seem more like manacles than bracelets. 



Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 31 

36.— BRIDAL PRESENTS. 
XXIV, 53. The servant brought forth jewels of silver, and 
jewels of gold, and raiment, and gave them to Rebekah. 

1. Rich and splendid apparel, especially such as was adorned with gold, 
was very general among Eastern nations from earliest times, and is still quite 
common. Reference is made to this in Psa. xlv, 9, 13 : " Upon thy right hand 
did stand the queen in gold of Ophir." — " Her clothing is of wrought gold." 

2. These beautiful and costly bridal-presents are given to the intended 
bride by the expectant bridegroom for the purpose of binding the contract. 
See note on Matt, i, 18. 

. 37.— THE NURSE. 

XXIV, 59. They sent away Rebekah their sister, and her nurse. 

In an Eastern family the nurse is a very important personage. She 
is esteemed almost as a parent; and, accompanying the bride to her new 
home, there remains with her. She becomes the adviser, the assistant, and 
the friend of the bride. To the nurse, as to a mother, the bride will con- 
fide her greatest secrets. Thus Rebekah took with her on her long journey 
to her future home the nurse who had cared for her since childhood, so that, 
besides the female servants she took with her, (verse 61,) she might have 
one intimate familiar friend among strangers. 

3§.— UPLIFTED EYES — MARK OF RESPECT. 
XXIV, 64. Rebekah lifted up her eyes, and when she saw Isaac, 
she lighted off the eamel. 

1. The expression "lifted up" is often met with in the Scriptures in con- 
nection with the eyes. It does not always mean to look upward, but some- 
times to look directly and earnestly at an object. Roberts says, it is to this 
day a common form of speech in India. We have in this text an illustration. 
Isaac may have looked upward when "he lifted up his eyes" and saw the 
caravan coming, for he was walking in the field, engaged in meditation, 
(verse 63,) and very likely had his head inclined, and his eyes downward; 
but Rebekah, on the back of a camel, could hardly have looked upward 
when she saw Isaac. She simply looked directly and earnestly at him. 

2. She quickly "lighted off" the camel when she discerned Isaac, thus 
giving him a customary mark of respect. In like manner Achsah alighted 
in the presence of OthnieLandof Caleb, (Josh, xv, 18 ;) Abigail thus alighted 
in the presence of David, (1 Sam. xxv, 23 ;) and even the haughty Naaman 
was so happy over his wonderful cure that he alighted from his chariot in 
the presence of Elisha's servant, (2 Kings v. 21,) showing Gehazi the 
respect he would have shown to his master had he been present. Travelers 
tell us that this custom is still practiced. 



32 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

39.— THE VAIL. 

XXIV, 65. The servant had. said, It is my master : therefore she 
took a vail and covered herself. 

1. The custom of vailing the face of women, now so common in the East, 
was not general in the days of the patriarchs, nor for a long time after. 
The women usually appeared in pubiic with faces exposed. Much of the 
modern Oriental scrupulousness on this subject is due to Mohammedan 
influence, the Koran forbidding women to appear uuvailed except in the pres- 
ence only of their nearest relatives. No representations of vails are found on 
either the Assyrian or the Egyptian monuments ; yet the Egyptians, as well as 
the Hebrews, did use the vail on special occasions. Wilkinson says, that the 
ancient Egyptian vail was not so thick as the boorko of modern Egypt ; but 
was thin enough to be seen through, like that of the Wahabees. The vailing 
of the bride before coming into the presence of the bridegroom is a very 
ancient custom, indicating modest}', and subjection to the husband. 

It is claimed by some, however, that the tsaiph — both here and in Gen. 
xxxviii, 14. rendered " vail" — was not properly a vail, but rather a large wrap- 
per which was worn out of doors; a light summer dress, of handsome appear- 
ance and of ample dimensions, so that it might be thrown over the head at 
pleasure. Thus, when she saw Isaac, Rebekah slipped the upper part of her 
loose flowing robe over her head, thereby concealing her face from her ex- 
pectant lover. 

40.— WOMAN'S TENT — MARRIAGE. 

XXIV, 67. Isaae brought her into his mother Sarah's tent, and 
took Rebekah, and she became his wife. 

1. The expression "Sarah's tent" may mean nothing more than her apart- 
ment in the principal tent of the encampment, (see Gen. xviii, 9, 10 ; Judges 
iv, 18; and see note on Sol. Song i, 5;) though it is sometimes customarj' 
for the women to have separate tents of their own, as seems to have been 
the case with Leah and Rachel. Gen. xxxi, 33. This would doubtless be 
desirable where there were more wives than one. 

2. There is no evidence of any special religious forms in these primitive 
marriages. The preliminaries referring to dowry and similar financial 
matters being satisfactorily arranged, the man took his wife as Isaac took 
Rebekah. The essence of the marriage ceremony consisted in the removal 
of the bride from her father's house to that of the bridegroom or of his 

father. 

41.— BIRTHRIGHT. 

XXV, 31, 33. Jacob said, Sell me this day thy birthright . . . And 
he sold his birthright. 

Great respect was paid by the household to the first-born son. He had 
headship over his brothers: lie succeeded to the father's official authority: 



Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 33 

he had a special claim to the father's benediction; in him was the- pro- 
genitorship of the Messiah; the domestic priesthood belonged to him, ac- 
cording to some authorities, though this is denied by others. Under the 
Mosaic law he received a double portion of the father's goods. This birth- 
right could be transferred to another for a consideration, or withheld by the 
father for cause. 

42.— POTTAGE. 

XXV, 34. Jacob gave Esau bread, and pottage of lentiles ; and 
he did eat and drink, and rose up, and went his way. Thus 
Esau despised his birthright. 

Pottage was often made of lentiles, and is so made at this day. Dr. 
Shaw says that they are cooked like beans, which they very much resemble, 
" dissolving easily into a mass, and making a pottage of a chocolate color." 

In India this sort of food is considered so cheap and common that it 
represents, in proverbial speech, any thing that is worthless. '"The fellow 
has sold his land for pottage ; " that is, for an insignificant consideration. " The 
learned one has fallen into the pottage-pot; " that is, the wise man has done 
what was not expected of him — a mean thing. "He is trying to procure 
rubies by pottage; " that is. he wishes to get great things by small means. 
— Roberts. These expressions illustrate the despicable conduct of Esau, 
who sold his priceless birthright for a mess of mean food, the emblem of 
worthlessness. 

43.- CUSTOMS CONCERNING WELLS. 

XXVI, 15. All the wells which his father's servants had digged 
in the days of Abraham his father, the Philistines had stopped 
them, and filled them with earth. 

In the East, digging wells gives title to unoccupied lands. Isaac 
therefore owned by inheritance the land in the vicinity of which these wells 
had been dug by his father's direction. In a pastoral country it is a serious 
matter to choke up the wells which have been dug for the convenience of 
flocks and herds. It is, in fact, a declaration of war, and has always been 
considered a hostile act. Thus the Israelites did according to Divine com- 
mand when they invaded Moab. 2 Kings iii, 19, 25. In some parts of 
Persia the people have a way of concealing their wells with boards covered 
with sand, so as to conceal them from the eye of an enemy. 

44.— STRIFE AT WELLS. 

XXVI, 20. The herdmen of Gerar did strive with Isaac's herd- 
men, saying, The water is ours. 

These contests between rival herdmen for the possession of wells are still 
common in the land. Water is so necessary, and yet sometimes so hard to 
get, that it is no wonder there are battles wnged for it. Some travelers 



34 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

stale ttiat the Bedawin would give a stranger milk to drink rather than 
water, the latter being more valuable. A contest similar to the one noticed 
in the text took place between the servants of Abraham and those of Abim- 
elech. Gen. xxi, 25. 

45.— COVENANT FEASTS. 

XXVI, 30, 31. He made them a feast, and they did eat and drink. 
And they rose up betimes . . . and sware one to another. 

It was customary among the Hebrews, and also among the heathen 
nations, to eat together when entering into a covenant. TVhen Jacob made 
his covenant with Laban he made a feast for his brethren. Gen. xxxi, 54. 
Many allusions to this custom are made by classical writers. 

46,— SEASONED FOOD. 

XXVII, 3, 4. Go out to the field, and take me some venison ; 
and make me savory meat, such as I love, and bring it to me, 
that I may eat. 

This means a dish prepared iu any appetizing way, but especially by 
means of condiments. The Orientals are fond of highly seasoned food. 
Salt, spices, onions, garlic, and various aromatic herbs, such as saffron and 
mint, are used as seasoning for their meats. 

Some commentators suppose a connection between this feast and the 
former patriarchal blessing. They regard it as a solemn covenant cere- 
mony — a sacrifice which ratifies the blessing. Such covenant solemnities 
were usually associated with a meal among the Orientals. 

47 —TIME FOR MOURNING. 

XXVII, 41. The days of mourning for my father are at hand. 
This alludes to the formal ceremonious «nourning for the dead, which 

usually lasted seven days, (Gen. 1, 10; 1 Sam. xxxi, 13; Job ii, 13,) though it 
was sometimes continued for a longer period. 
See note on John xi, 17. 

4§— SLEEPING OUT OF DOORS. 

XXVIII, 11. He lighted upon a certain place, and tarried there 
all night . . . and he took of the stones of that place, and put 
them for his pillows, and lay down in that place to sleep. 

1. Sleeping out of doors all night could have been no hardship to a man 
inured to a shepherd's life, for this was a shepherd's custom. 

2. It is not likely, as many seem to imagine, that his head rested on the 
naked stone. His outer mantle could easily have been drawn up over his 
head, and its folds would have made an excellent pillow on the stone head- 
rest, the hardness of which could be further modified by the covering he 
usually wore on his head. 



Genesis] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 35 

49.— MONUMENTAL STONES. 

XXVIII, IS. Jacob rose up early in the morning, and took the 
stone that he had. put for his pillows, and set it up for a pillar, 
and poured oil upon the top of it. 

1. This stone was set up as a monument of God's wonderful revelation to 
him, and of his vow. Verse 20. Thirty years later he repeated this solemn 
act in the same place. Gen. xxxv, 14. Moses likewise built twelve pillars at 
Sinai as a sign of God's covenant. Exod. xxiv, 4. So Joshua set up a 
monument of stones in commemoration of the passage of the Jordan. Josh, 
iv, 3-9. At Shechem also he set up a stone under an oak as a memorial of 
the covenant between God and his people. Josh, xxiv, 26. In like manner 
Samuel erected a stone between Mizpeh and Shen to commemorate his 
victory over the Philistines. 1 Sam. vii, 12. As these stone pillars were all 
erected as testimonies of some great events, it has been suggested that Paul 
in 1 Tim. iii, 1 5 designs to represent the Church as a pillar of testimony for 
the truth, God having founded and reared the Church as a monument for 
that purpose. 

There existed in heathen countries a practice similar to the one referred 
to in the text. Morier gives a good illustration of our text in a little inci- 
dent he saw while traveling in Persia. He says: "I remarked that our old 
guide, every here and there, placed a stone on a conspicuous bit of rock, 
or two stones one upon the other, at the same time uttering some w r ords, 
which I learned were a prayer for our safe return." — Second Journey through 
Persia, p. 85. He had frequently seen similar stones without knowing 
their design. 

2. The anointing of the stone by Jacob was doubtless designed as a solemn 
act of consecration of this stone to its monumental purposes ; just as subse- 
quently Moses, by command of God, anointed the tabernacle and its furni- 
ture. Num. vii, 1. This act of the patriarch is not to be confounded with 
the idolatrous practice, common among heathens, of pouring oil upon stones 
and worshiping them. See note on Isa. lvii, 6. 

50.— WELL-STONES. 

XXIX, 2. Out of that well they watered the flocks : and a great 
stone was upon the well's mouth. 

This was to protect the water from impurity, and from shifting sands, 
which without such protection would soon choke it. Modern travelers make 
frequent mention of the stone covers to wells and cisterns. Some of these 
stones are so large and heavy as to require the united strength of several 
men to remove them. May there not be reference to this custom in Job 
xxxviii, 30 : " The waters are hid as with a stone, and the face of the deep 
is frozen?" 



36 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

51.— WELLS OPENED. 

XXIX, 3. Thither were all the flocks gathered : and. they rolled 
the stone from the well's mouth, and watered the sheep, 
and put the stone again upon the "well's mouth in his place. 

This is not a part of the history; since all the flocks were not ac ually 
gathered and the stone removed until Rachel came. Verse 10. Tlie verse is 
meant to describe the general custom of the country. It was usual to 
wait until all the flocks were gathered, and then the stone was taken off 
and the work of watering began. Verse 8. Harmer refers to the state- 
ment of Sir John Chardin, that he had known wells or cisterns locked up 
in the East, and accepts Chardin's explanation that this may have been 
the case in this instance, and that Rachel probably had the key, and that for 
that reason they were all obliged to wait until she came. But we see no 
reason for supposing any lock and key in the case; no mention is made of 
them in the narrative. The reason assigned in verse 8 for waiting for 
Rachel is, not that she had any special means for opening the well, but that 
it was customary for all the flocks to be gathered before the stone was rolled 
away. 

52.— NAMES FROM ANIMALS. 
XXIX, 6. Behold Rachel his daughter eometh with the sheep. 

Burder calls attention to the fact that the name Rachel signifies, in He- 
brew, a sheep, and says, " It was anciently the custom to give names even to 
families from cattle, both great and small." — Oriental Customs, No. 48. This 
ancient custom is no more singular than that which is common among us, of 
naming families after all sorts of beasts and birds, wild and tame; for exam- 
ple, "Wolf, Fox, Lion, Bear, Bull, Nightingale, Jay, Hawk, Finch, etc. 

53.— MEN KISSING. 

XXIX, 13. And it came to pass, -when Laban heard the tidings 
of Jacob his sister's son, that he ran to meet him, and em- 
braced him, and kissed him. 

This custom of embraces and kisses among men, though strange to us, is 
common enough in the East. Jacob kissed his father. Gen. xxvii, 27. Esau 
embraced and kissed Jacob. Gen. xxxiii, 4. Joseph kissed all his brethren. 
Gen. xlv, 15. Jacob kissed and embraced Joseph's sons. Gen. xlviii, 10. 
Aaron kissed Moses. Exod. iv, 27. Moses kissed Jethro. Exod. xviii, 7. 
David and Jonathan kissed each other. 1 Sam. xx, 41. The father of the 
prodigal is represented as kissing him when he returned home. Luke xv, 20. 
The elders at Miletus fell on Paul's neck and kissed him. Acts xx, 37. 
Modern travelers make frequent mention of this custom. 



Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 37 

54.— WEAK EYES. 
XXIX, 17. Leah was tender-eyed. 

That is, she had weak or dull eyes, which, accordiug to the Oriental stand- 
ard of beauty, is a great blemish. 

55.— RELATIVES PREFERRED. 
XXIX, 19. It is better that I give her to thee, than that I should 
give her to another man. 

It is still customary among many Eastern tribes to give the preference in 
marriage to a cousin. It is expected that a man will marry his cousin. He 
is not compelled to do it, but he has the right, and she is not allowed to 
marry any other without his consent. 

56.— BRIDES BOUGHT. 

XXIX, 20. Jacob served seven years for Rachel. 

The dowry comes not with the bride, but for the bride. In Oriental mar- 
riages the bride is given only on receipt of a consideration. In many cases 
the transaction amounts to actual bargain and sale; this, however, is not 
necessarily the case. Custom regards the father of the bride as entitled 
to some compensation for the trouble had in her training, and for the loss 
of service experienced by her departure from home. If this compensation 
cannot be rendered in money, jewels, or cattle, it may be given in labor. 
It was in this way that Jacob became herdman to Laban. Moses probably 
served Jethro in a similar manner, for the sake of having Zipporah. Comp. 
Exod. ii, 21; iii, 1. Shechem offered to Jacob and his sons any amount of 
dowry he was pleased to ask for Dinah. Gen. xxxiv, 12. 

57.— MARRIAGE FEAST. 
XXIX 22. Laban gathered together all the men of the place 
and made a feast. 

The usual duration of a marriage feast was a week. Thus, "Fulfill her 
week," in verse 27. means, ""Wait until the week's festivities are over." 
This was the duration of Samson's marriage feast. Judges xiv, 12. 

58.— THE ELDER FIRST. 
XXIX, 26. Laban said, It must not be so done in our country, 
to give the younger before the first-born. 

This ancient custom still exists in India, and is sometimes observed in 
Egypt. It also prevailed in old imperial Germany. In India it is con- 
sidered disgraceful in the extreme, and according to the Gentoo law a crime, 
for a father to permit a younger daughter to get married before the elder, 
or for a younger son to be married while his elder brother remains single. 
If the eldest daughter be deformed, or blind, or deaf, or dumb, then the 

3 



38 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Genesis. 



younger may be married first. If a father have an opportunity to marry 
one of his younger daughters advantageously, he will first do all he can to 
get the elder one married, and until this can be done the younger cannot be 
married. 

59.— SIGNIFICANT NAMES. 
XXTX, 32. She called his name Reuben ; for she said, Surely 
the Lord hath looked upon my affliction. 

Reuben, that is, See! a son! This was in joyful acknowledgment of 
this evidence of God's goodness. Many of the proper names in the Scriptures 
have a meaning in some way connected with the persons bearing them. Other 
people besides the Jews have had this custom : Africans, Arabs, East Indians, 
and the aborigines of our own land. Thus a certain Abyssinian was named 
Omazena, because of a wart on his hand; an Arab boy was called Duman, 
because he was born before the gate Bab-el-Duma at Damascus. Among the 
Hindoos we find AniMuttoo, the precious pearl; Pun Amma, the golden lady ; 
Chinny Tamby, the little friend. Among the North American Indians we 
have Kosh-kin-ne-kait, the cut-off arm ; Wuh-ge-kaut, crooked legs ; Wau-zhe- 
gaiv-maish-kum, he that walks along the shore. 



XXXI, 

These 
tions of 

Nothing 
large, or 




60.— TERAPHIM. 
19. Rachel had stolen the images that were her father's. 

i: images " (teraphim) are supposed to have been rude representa- 
the human form ; perhaps the statuettes of deceased aucestors. 
definite is known as to their size. They could not have been very 
Rachel would not have been abfe to conceal them under the bag- 
gage; nor could they have been very 
small, or they would not have served 
Michal's purpose of deception. See 
1 Sam.xix, 13, 16. They may have been of 
different sizes. Their use is very ancient: 
the Israelites adopted tbem from the Ara- 
means. They were household gods which 
were consulted as oracles. Micah the 
Ephraimite placed them in his "house of 
gods.' 1 Judg. xvii, 5 ; xviii, 14, 17, 18, 20. 
Some Jewish writers believe that the 
teraphim were supposed, on consultation, 
to be able to give any information de- 
sired, and that Rachel stole them from her 
father for fear he should learn, by con- 
sulting them, what route Jacob and his 
10.— UmAPiiiM. family had taken. Whether or not the 




Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 39 

teraphim were actually worshiped is a disputed question. The Hebrews 
certainly kept up the worship of Jehovah in connection with the use of the 
teraphim. It was not until the reign of Josiah that this singular custom 
was abolished. 2 Kings xxiii, 24. We even find traces of it afterward as late 
as the time of Hosea. Hosea iii, 4. The practice became deeply rooted, and 
extended over large regions of country. The Lares and Penates of the 
Romans are supposed to have been used for the same purposes as these 
teraphim. " The Penates were divinities or household gods, who were be- 
lieved to be the creators or dispensers of all the well-being and gifts of 
fortune enjoyed by a family, as well as an entire community. " "Every fam- 
ily worshiped one or more of these, whose images were kept in the inner 
part of the house." The Lares were "guardian spirits whose place was the 
chimney-piece, and whose altar was the domestic hearth." Lares and Pen- 
ates were worshiped " in the form of little figures or images of wax, earth- 
enware, or terra cotta, and of metal, more especially silver." — Barker's 
Lares and Penates, pp. 146, 147. 

Faber supposes the teraphim to be identical with the cherubim. He 
thinks that those which belonged to Laban were images resembling the 
cherubim which were afterward put on the ark. — Origin of Pagan Idolatry, 
vol. iii, p. 621. 

61.— TABRET AND HARP. 

XXXI, 27. I might have sent thee away with mirth, and with, 
songs, with tabret, and with harp. 

1. The word toph, here and in' other places rendered "tabret," and in a 
number of texts translated "timbrel," represents a very ancient musical in- 
strument of percussion. There are three varieties depicted on the Egyptian 
monuments : one circular, another square or oblong, and a third consisting 
of two squares separated by a bar. Over these frames parchment was 
stretched, and in the rim were small bells or pieces of tinkling brass. The 
toph was used on occasions of joy, and was generally played by women, and 
often accompanied by dancing. It is reproduced in the " tambourine " which 
is occasionally seen in the streets of our large cities in the hands of itinerant 
musicians as an accompaniment to the barrel-organ. 

2. The word Mnnor, which frequently occurs in the Old Testament, and 
is translated " harp," has given rise to considerable discussion. It was ur- 
doubtedly the earliest musical instrument made, (Gen. iv, 21,) though some 
suppose that the text referred to is meant to show that Jubal was the in- 
ventor of stringed instruments generally, without referring to any par- 
ticular kind. As to the shape of this ancient instrument there is no cer- 
tainty. It has been variously represented by different writers as shaped 
like the lyre, the Greek letter A. the guitar, and the modenr»harp. There is 



40 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Genesis. 



equal variety of opinion as to the number of strings. Seven, ten, twenty- 
four, and forty-seven have been named. It has also been asserted by some 
that it was played by means of a plectrum, while others assert that it was 
played by hand. These conflicting statements may all be harmonized by 
supposing that the shape varied at different times, or that the word kinnor 
was the generic term for all instruments of the lyre kind; that the number 
of strings varied at different periods, or with the size of the instrument ; 
that the instruments were of different sizes ; and that they were sometimes 
played with a plectrum and sometimes by hand. The kinnor was a very 
popular instrument with the Hebrews, and was used at jubilees and festi- 
vals. Its use was also practiced by other nations. 

62.— CAMELS' FURNITURE. 

XXXI, 34. Rachel had taken the images, and put them in the 
camel's furniture, and sat upon them. 

It is not known whether this "furniture" was simply the cloth which 
covered the camel's back, or a couch which might be used at night for 

a bed, or a 
x t u r e re- 
sembling the 
wicker - work 
chair or cage, 
covered witli 
a canopy, 
, which is used 
— — z^^^^^^-^^^^- by t | ie mo( j. 

11. — Camels 1 Furniture. e r n Arab 

ladies when they ride on camels. Whether Rachel made use of any such 
arrangement or not, the place where the teraphim were concealed was evi- 
dently in the article, whatever it was, which took the place of a saddle, and 
on which Rachel sat. It is at this day common for the Arabs to hide 
stolen property under the padding of their saddles. 

63.— COVENANT STONES. 

XXXT, 48. Laban said, This heap is a witness between me and 
thee this day. 

The use of stones in making a covenant is referred to in the Bible on 
several occasions. Herodotus speaks of a similar custom among the an- 
cient Arabians. He says : " When two men would swear a friendship, 
they stand on each, side of a third. He, with a sharp stone, makes a cut on 
the inside of the hand of each, near the middle finger, and taking a piece 
from their dress dips it in the blood of each, and moistens therewith seven 




Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 41 

stones lying in the midst, calling meanwhile on Bacchus and Urania," — 
Rawlinson's Herodotus, ii, p. 401. 

Some think that Job refers to this custom when he speaks of " a days- 
man." See Job ix, 33. 

64.— PRESENTS. 

XXXIII, 10. Jacob said, Nay, I pray thee, if now I have found 
grace in thy sight, then receive my present at my hand. 

The giving of presents is far more common in the East, and has more sig- 
nificance, than with us. Hardly any transaction of importance can take 
place without a gift. The formal visits which friends make to each other 
are preceded by presents of fowls, sheep, rice, coffee, and other provisions. 
Sir John Chardin notices that in Persia every one gives what is most at 
hand, and has a relation to his profession, and those who have no particular 
profession give money. A refusal to receive a present is, throughout the 
East, interpreted as an evidence of enmity. Hence Jacob's anxiety that 
Esau should accept the gift he offered. See also G-en. xliii, 11 ; Judges 
iii, 18; 1 Sam. ix, 7 ; x, 27 ; 2 Sam. xvii, 27-29; 1 Kings x, 2, 10; xiv, 3; 
2 Kings v, 5, 15; viii, 9; 2 Chron. ix, 24; Psa. lxxii, 10; lxxvi, 11; Prov. 
xviii, 16 ; Matt, ii, 11. 

65.— KESITAH. 

XXXIII, 19. He bought a parcel of a field, where he had spread 
his tent, at the hand of the children of Hamor, Sheehem's 
father, for a hundred pieces of money. 

Under the impression that the word kesitah, here rendered "pieces of 
money," means a lamb, many of the ancient commentators supposed that 
here was an evidence of early coinage ; the " pieces of money " being coins 
having on them the impress of a lamb. Stanley {Hist Jewish Church, 
Lect. Ill,) adopts this theorj r , and some other writers of our time agree with 
him. Coins have indeed been found with the figure of a lamb upon them, 
but they were not struck until later than B.C. 450, and, according to the 
best numismatists, probably belonged to Cyprus. Madden affirms that the 
earliest coined money was in the eighth century before Christ, and that 
" the use of coined money in Palestine cannot have existed till after the 
taking of Samaria by the Assyrians (in B.C. 721.)" — Jewish Coinage, p. 14 

Other interpreters have supposed the kesitah to be a weight made in the 
form of a lamb, as ancient weights have been found in the shape of bulls, 
lions, and other animals. See note on Gen. xxiii, 16. 

Some of the recent philologists, however, deny that kesitah means a lamb. 
They derive it from a root signifying to weigh, and suppose it to have been 
a piece of silver of unknown weight or size. 

The same word is used in Job xlii, 11. 



^y\ o 



42 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

66.— EAR-RINGS. 

XXXV, 4. They gave unto Jacob all the strange gods which 
were in their hand., and. all their ear-rings which were in their 
ears ; and Jacob hid them under the oak. which was by 
Sheehem. 

Ear-rings were of various sizes, shapes, and material. At the present day, 

among the Orientals, they are of gold, 
silver, brass, ivory, horn, and wood ; 
they are sometimes plain, and some- 
times adorned with precious stones- 

12. — Egyptian Ear-ring Amulets. ^ , _, , . 

Some are small, and fit closely to the 

ear, leaving no intermediate space ; while others are large and heavy, and 

drop some distance below the ear. Some of these, by their weight, make a 

disagreeable-looking hole in the part of the ear whence they hang. MacG-regor 

saw some men near Lake Huleh with ear-rings "not in the lobe of the ear, 

but in the projecting flesh." — Bob Roij on the Jordan, p. 150. It is supposed 

by some that the use of ear-rings among the Hebrews was confined to the 

women. If so there must have been exceptions. See Exod. xxxii, 2. 

It is evident from this text that it was customary to connect the use of 
ear-rings with idolatry. This is further intimated in Hosea ii, 13, where the 
wearing of ear-rings is associated with burning incense to Baal. Isa. iii, 20 
is also supposed to refer to idolatrous practices. Ear-rings were doubtless 
used as amulets. "With strange figures and characters engraved upon them 
they were considered as charms warding off evil. They are still thus used 
in the East. Jacob, being commanded to go to Bethel to renew his cove- 
nant with God, desired to put away every vestige of idolatry from the 
people, and for this reason buried these ear-ring amulets with the teraphim 
under the oak. 

6T.— COAT OF PIECES. 
XXXVII, 3. Israel loved Joseph: and he made him a coat of 
many colors. 

Or, "a coat of pieces." The ordinary Tunic was a garment worn next to 
the skin, reaching to the knees, and usually without sleeves. Joseph's coat 
is supposed to have had sleeves, and to have reached to the wrists and 
ankles; a luxurious robe, and a mark of distinction such as, in later times, 
Tamar and the other daughters of the king wore. 2 Sam. xhi, 18. The 
''pieces" may have been different pieces of cloth variously colored, and of 
which the garment was made ; or they may have been various colored 
threads, stripes, or plaids. In India coats of different colored patchwork 
are made for favorite children, pieces of crimson, purple, and other colors 
being sewed together. Jackets are sometimes embroidered with gold and 
silk of various colors, It is believed that a child thus clad will be saved 



Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 43 

from evil spirits, since the attention of the spirits will be diverted from the 
child by the beauty of the garment. There is no evidence of any such 
superstition in the case of Jacob. It was merely an instance of parental 
favoritism. 

6§.— CISTERNS. 

XXXVII, 24 They took him, and. east him into a pit: and the 
pit was empty, there was no water in it. 

There are numerous pits or cisterns still to be found in Palestine. They 
are often hewn out of the solid rock, and, being narrower at the mouth than 
at the bottom, it is not an easy thing to get out unaided, if one should be so 
unfortuuate as to get in. Dr. Thomson mentions the case of an acquaint- 
ance who fell into one of these pits, or empty cisterns, and, being unable to 
extricate himself, passed two dreadful days and nights before he was dis- 
covered and drawn out, more dead than alive. 

These cisterns, when dry, were sometimes used as dungeons for prison- 
ers, and thus Joseph's brethren put him into one. The prophet Jeremiah 
was also imprisoned in a cistern which had been dug in the court-yard of 
the prison. See Jer. xxxviii, 6, where the word bor is translated "dun- 
geon." This is the same word that in the text is rendered "pit." and in 
some other places " cistern." 

See also Jer. xiv, 3, Zech. ix, 11, and the note on Jer. ii, 13. 

69.— CARAVANS. 

XXXVII, 25. They sat down to eat bread: and they lifted up 
their eyes and looked, and, behold, a company of Ishmaelites 
came from Gilead, with their camels bearing spieery and balm 
and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt. 

This was a caravan of Arabian merchants on their way to Egypt with 
such drugs as the Egyptians used for embalming -and for medicinal pur- 
poses. The Egyptians depended on these itinerant Arab merchants for 
their supplies of this nature. See note on James iv, 13. The mode of travel- 
ing in a caravan is peculiar. Pitts describes it as he saw it in the great car- 
avan which was journeying to Mecca on a religious pilgrimage. It was un- 
doubtedly longer than this commercial caravan, yet this was probably ar- 
ranged on a similar plan. "They travel four camels abreast, which are 
all tied one after the other, like as in teams. The whole body is called a 
caravan, which is divided into several cottors, or companies, each of which 
hath its name, and consists, it may be, of several thousand camels ; and 
they move, one cottor after another, like distinct troops." — Religion and Man- 
ners of the Mahometans, p. 430. He also states that the camels have bells 
about their necks, which, with the singing of the camel drivers, who travel 



44 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Genesis. 




13.— Caeavan. 

on foot, make pleasant music. Though there is great confusion at the set- 
ting out of a caravan, its different companies and divisions soon settle down 
into a condition of order. 

The caravan is also referred to in Isa. xxi, 13, Luke ii, 44. 

70.— MOURNING. 
XXXVII, 31 Jacob rent his clothes, and put sackcloth upon 
his loins, and mourned for his son many days. 

1. Rending the clothes as a token of grief is a very ancient custom, and 
is often referred to in the Bible. See Josh, vii, 6; 1 Sam. iv, 12; 2 Sam. 
i, 11; hi, 31; xiii, 31; 2 Kings ii, 12; xviii, 37; xix, 1; Ezra ix, 3; Job 
i, 20. A Jewish writer, quoted by Burder. says that this ceremony was per- 
formed in the following manner: "They take a knife, and holding the blade 
downward, do give the upper garment a cut on the right side, and then 
rend it a hand's breadth. This is done for the five following relations, 
brother, sister, son, daughter, or wife ; but for father or mother the rent is 
on the left side, and in all the garments." — Oriental Ctistoms, No. 65. 

2. Sackcloth is also frequently mentioned. It was general^ made of the 
hair of goats or of camels, and was coarse and black. It was used for 
straining liquid?, for sacks, and for mourning garments. "When used for 



Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 45 

mourning it was sometimes worn next to the skin, which it must have 
chafed by its harshness, and at other times it was hung like a sack over the 
outer garments, or instead of them. A girdle of similar material confined its 
loose folds. Ahab, on one occasion, appears to have worn sackcloth next 
to his skin all night. See 1 Kings xxi, 27. In Rev. vi, 12. in the darkness 
accompanying an earthquake, the sun is said to have become " as black as 
sackcloth of hair." 

71.— CAPTAIN OF THE GUARD. 
XXXVII, 36. The Midianites sold him into Egypt unto Potiphar, 
an officer of Pharaoh's, and captain of the guard. 

Literally, " captain of the executioners." He was responsible for the safe- 
keeping of state prisoners, and for the execution of sentence upon them. In 
cases of treason he sometimes executed the sentence himself. He was the 
official guardian of the person of the king — the chief of his body-guard. 

The king of Babylon had a similar officer in his service. See 2 Kings 
xxv, 8 ; Jer. xxxix, 13 ; Dan. ii, 14. In the ruins of the hall of judgment 
of the palace at Khorsabad, Assyria, there is on the wall a representation of 
a naked man with limbs stretched out, and arms and ankles fastened to the 
floor or table, while a tall, bearded man is in the act of flaying him alive. 
This is supposed to be " the chief of the executioners " engaged at his horrid 
work; and some commentators interpret the expression "cut in pieces," in 
Dan. iii, 29, to refer to this act of flaying alive. See also Micah iii, 3. 

72.— PRISONS. 
XL, 3. He put them in ward in the house of the captain of the 
guard, into the prison, the place where Joseph was bound. 

According to the Eastern custom, the state-prison formed a part of the 
dwelling-house of the chief of the executioners, or of some other prominent 
personage. See Jer. xxxvii, 15. Sometimes even the king's palace was so 
used. See Jer. xxxii, 2. 

73.— USE OF WINE. 

XL, 11. Pharaoh's cup was in my hand : and I took the 
grapes, and pressed them into Pharaoh's cup, and I gave the 
cup into Pharaoh's hand. 

It has been supposed by some that the ancient Egyptians drank no wine, 
though they did not object to drinking the unfermented juice of the grape, 
and this text is referred to as an illustration. It was evidently a part of the 
duty of Pharaoh's butler to press the grapes into the cup that the king 
might drink; but it by no means follows that because of this no fermented 
wine was used. A passage in Herodotus is usually cited as an evidence 
that only fresh must was allowed. On the other hand, there is other ancient 



46 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

testimony that establishes the fact that the Egyptians used fermented wine. 
This testimony is corroborated by the old monuments, which have representa- 
tions of different articles employed in making wine, wine-presses in operation, 
and drunken men and women. 

74.— BURDENS ON THE HEAD. 

XL, 16. I also was in my dream, and, behold, I had three 
white baskets on my head. 

It is quite common in the East to carry burdens on the head. Thus the 
head and neck become so strong that it is not uncommon for a man to carry 
a weight which requires the united strength of three men to lift from the 
ground. Women and children, as well as men, carry loads in this way. In 
ancient Egypt only men carried burdens on the head. The women carried 
them on the shoulder. See note on Gen. xxi, 14. 

75.— BIRTHDAY FEAST. 

XL, 20. It came to pass the third day, which was Pharaoh's 
birthday, that he made a feast unto all his servants. 

The Eastern kings celebrated their birthdays by holding feasts and grant- 
ing pardon to offenders. On the occasion referred to in the text the king 
availed himself of this custom to pardon the chief butler; although, for some 
reason not stated, he refused to grant the same clemency to the chief baker. 

See also Matt, xiv, 6; Mark vi, 21. 

76.— EGYPTIAN MAGICIANS. 
XLI, 8. He sent and called for all the magicians of Egypt. 

These magicians (chartummim) were an order of Egyptian priests who 
understood the sacred hieroglyphic writings. They cultivated a knowledge 
of art and science, interpreted dreams, practiced soothsaying and divination, 
and were supposed to possess secret arts. They were men of great influence 
in Egypt, much esteemed, and highly honored. They were applied to for 
direction and assistance on all subjects outside the ordinary range of knowl- 
edge. Hence Pharaoh sent for them when he desired an interpretation of 
his strange dreams. Moses in after years met this same class of men. 
Exod. vii, 11, 22. The same term is applied to the magicians in Babylon. 
Dan. i, 20; ii, 2. 

77.— SHAVING AMONG THE EGYPTIANS. 
XLI, 14. Pharaoh sent and called Joseph, and they brought 
him hastily out of the dungeon : and he shaved himself. 

Contrary to the custom of the Hebrews and other Orientals, the Egyptians 
shaved closely, only allowing the beard to grow as a sign of mourning ; thus 



Genesis.] 



BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. 



4:7 




14. — Egyptian Bakbers. 



reversing the custom of the Hebrews, who shaved as a token of mourning. 
See note on Isaiah xv, 2. Strange to say, the Egyptians, while so careful 
to shave the 
beard, sometimes 
fastened false 
beards to the 
chin. These were 
made of plaited 
hair, and were of 
different shapes 
and sizes, accord- 
ing to the rank of 
the wearer. 

Joseph, while 

in prison, allowed his beard to grow; now that he is released he shaves, ac- 
cording to the Egyptian custom, as it would have been a disgrace for him 
to appear with a beard in the presence of the king. 

78.— ELEVATION OF SLAVES. 
XLI, 41. Pharaoh, said unto Joseph, See, I have set thee over 
all the land, of Egypt. 

This elevation of a slave to a position of high office, though uncommon 
among Western nations, was not so rare in the East. There, change of 
fortune was so sudden that the beggar of to-day might be the noble of to- 
morrow. Many of the most prominent characters in Oriental history were 
once slaves. The history of Joseph has in this respect often been paralleled. 
A most curious illustration of this is given by Harmer in his account of 
Ali Bey, who was stolen from his native place in Lesser Asia, near the 
Black Sea, in 1741, when he was thirteen years old, and was carried into 
Egypt, where, after varied fortunes, he reached a position next in power to 
the Pasha. — Observations, vol. ii, p. 520. 



79.— SIGNETS— ROBES— NECKLACES. 
XLI, 42. Pharaoh took off his ring from his hand, and put 
it upon Joseph's hand, and arrayed him in vestures of fine 
linen, and put a gold chain about his neck. 

1. Great importance was attached to the signet ring, which contained the 
owner's name, and the impression of which was of the same validity as a 
written signature is among us. Hence the gift of this royal signet ring was 
a transfer of royal authority to Joseph. Thus Ahasuerus gave his ring to 
Haman, and the document which Haman signed with it was considered as 
coming from the king. Esther Hi, 10-12. The same ring was afterward 



48 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Genesis. 




given to Mordecai, who used it in the same way. Esther viii, 2, 8, 10. The 
value and importance attached to the signet ring are referred to in Jeremiah 
xxii, 24, and in Haggai ii, 23. Some valuable speci- 
mens of ancient signet rings have been found by 
antiquaries. One of the most remarkable of these 
is now in the Abbott Collection of Egyptian 
Antiquities, in the Museum of the New York 
Historical Society. It is in most excellent pres- 
ervation and of very high antiquity, bearing the 
name of Shoofoo, the Suphis of the Greeks, who 
reigned before the time of Joseph. It was found 
iu a tomb at Gizeh, and is of fine gold, weigh- 
ing nearly three sovereigns. 

For description of other kinds of seals see 
note on 1 Kings xxi, 8. 

2. The fine (or, literally, white) linen robes 
were worn by the Egyptian priests, which fact 
has given some occasion to think that Joseph 
was received into the caste of priests, which 
was of the highest rank in Egypt, as it was the 
one to which the king himself belonged. 

3. The gold chain was another mark of dis- 
tinction, since none but persons of high rank 

15.-— Kings and Signets. W6 re permitted to wear such ornaments. There 
is in the Abbott Collection a gold necklace which has on it the name of Meues, 
the first Pharaoh of Egypt, and who reigned several hundred years before 
Shoofoo. The necklace lias a pair of ear-rings to match. The signet and the 
necklace are no doubt similar in general appearance to those with which 
Joseph was invested. See also note on Sol. Song i, 10. 




80.— SECOND CHARIOT— CALL FOR PROSTRATION. 

XLI, 43. He made him to ride in the second chariot which 
he had ; and they cried before him, Bow the knee. 

1. The "second chariot" was either the one which followed immediately 
after the king's in state processions, or it was an extra chariot used by the 
king as a reserve in case of emergency. See 2 Chron. xxxv, 24. 

2. The streets of modern Egyptian cities are so narrow that when an 
ordinary carriage passes through them it is customary to have an usher run 
before it to warn the people to get out of the way. In the case of Joseph, 
the command was to prostrate themselves, as they would do in the presence 
of royalty itself. 



Genesis.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



49 



§1.— GRANARIES. 

XLI, 48. He gathered up all the food of the seven years, 
■which were in the land of Egypt, and laid up the food in the 
cities. 

Granaries were often very extensive in Egypt, and every facility was 
made for the housing and subsequent delivery of the grain. The monuments 
have many illustrations of the different styles of store-houses that were in 
use, by which we can obtain some idea of the manner in whicli the ancient 
Egyptians received and delivered their grain. Some of these store- houses 




16. — Egyptian Granary. 

were evidently low flat-roofed buildings, divided into rooms or vaults, into 
which the grain was poured from bags. Similar structures were also used in 
Palestine, though we have no detailed account of the mode in which they 
were arranged. The Romans sometimes built store-houses for grain on 
stone pillars. The " barns " mentioned in Luke xii, 18, were evidently 
above ground, since they were to be pulled down. Subterranean store- 
houses were also common in the East. See note on Jer. xli, 8. 

82.— SACKS, OF TWO KINDS. 

XLII, 25. Joseph commanded to fill their sacks with corn, 
and to restore every man's money into his sack. 

The sacks (keleihem) which were filled with corn, and the sack (sale) 
which had the money put into it, are supposed to have been of two dif- 
ferent kinds. The latter is thought to have been a bag for holding the 
provender for the journey; while the former (more properly rendered vessels 
than sacks) were larger, and were filled with the grain that they were 
carrying to Canaan. 



50 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 



83.— EGYPTIAN DINNERS. 
XL11I, 16. Bring these men home, and. slay, and make ready ; 
for these men shall dine with me at noon. 

The ancient Egyptians had the beasts they desired for food slaughtered in 
the court-yard of the dwelling. While the monuments give representations 
of poulterers' shops, they do not show any shops for the sale of butchers' 
meat, but represent the slaying, in private houses, of quadrupeds intended 
for food. The cause of this is not positively known. As poultry, fish, and 
vegetables formed the principal food of the people, it may be that there was 
not sufficient demand for the flesh of beasts to warrant the establishing of 
butcher-shops, such flesh perhaps being reserved for great feasts. The 
slaughter of animals for the table is a common subject of representa- 
tion on these monuments. The four legs of the animal were tied together, 
and it was then thrown to the ground. Here it was held by assistants 
while the butcher cut the throat from ear to ear. The blood was caught in 
vessels, and set aside for food. The animal was then flayed, and dressed, 
and cut into pieces, which were carried in trays to the kitchen, where the 
cook immediately began to get them ready for the table. In this text we 
find Joseph issuing his orders to " slay and make ready " for the noon- 
dinner ; so that not much time elapsed between the slaughter of the victims 
and their appearance on the tables ready for eating. See also 1 Sam. 
xxviii, 24. 

§4.— FORM OF SALUTATION. 

XLIII, 29. Is this your younger brother, of whom ye spake 
unto me ? And he said, God be gracious unto thee, my son. 

This is not a benediction, but one of the numerous forms of Oriental salu- 
tation used in meeting or in taking leave of an acquaintance. 

85.— BREAD THE PRINCIPAL FOOD. 

XLIII, 31. He washed his face, and went out, and refrained 
himself, and said, Set on bread. 

Orientals in general are great eaters of bread. It has been computed that 
three persons in four live entirely upon it, or else upon such compositions 
as are made of barley or wheat flour. No doubt the term " bread " was often 
used to denote food in general; but this was because bread was more 
generally used than any other article of diet. When Joseph's brethren had 
cast him into the pit, "they sat down to eat bread." Gen. xxxvii, 25. 
When Moses was in Midian he was invited to "eat bread." Exod. ii, 20. 
The witch of En-dor " set a morsel of bread " before Saul and his servants. 
] Sam. xxviii. 22-25. 



Genesis.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



51 



§6.— EGYPTIAN MODE OF DINING. 

XLIII, 32. They set on for him by himself, and for them 
by themselves, and for the Egyptians, -which did eat with 
him, by themselves : because the Egyptians might not eat 
bread with the Hebrews; for that is an abomination unto 
the Egyptians. 

1. The Egyptian tables were placed along the sides of the room, the 
guests having their faces toward the wall. In this case Joseph probably 
sat at one end of the hall and his brethren at the other end, (they " sat 
before him," verse 33,) while the Egyptians sat on either side. The ancient 
Egyptian table was a 
round tray fixed on 
a pillar or leg, which 
was often in the form 
of a man, usually a 
captive, who was rep- 
resented as holding 
the burden of the ta- 
ble on his head and 
shoulders. The eniire 
structure was of stone 
or of some hard wood. 
These tables were 
sometimes brought in 
and removed with the 
dishes upon them. 
One or two guests sat 
at each table. 

2. The Egyptians 
considered all foreign- 
ers unclean. No Egyp- 
tian would consent to 
kiss a Greek, nor to 
use any culinary utensil which belonged to one, nor to eat the flesh of any 
animal, even though a clean animal, which had been cut up with a Grecian 
knife. This was because foreigners ate animals which the Egyptians re- 
garded either as unclean or as sacred. The Hebrews, for instance, slaught- 
ered and ate the cow, which was sacred in the eyes of the Egyptians, and 
by them, on that account, exempt from slaughter. For this reason the 
representatives of the two nations could not eat together. Joseph ate by 
himself because he belonged to a higher caste than the Egyptians around 
him. and was above them all in social rank. 




17. — Modern Egyptians at Dinner. 



. 52 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

§7.— POSITION OF GUESTS AT TABLE. 
XLIII, 33. They sat before him, the first-born according to his 
birthright, and. the youngest according to his youth. 

1. The Egyptians sat at their meals; reclining was a Persian custom 
brought in at a later age. See note on Matt, xxvi, 7. They used chairs 
of various kinds, and stools, and sometimes sat on the floor with the left 
leg drawn under them and the right foot planted on the floor, thus elevating 
the right kuee. 

2. The guests were placed according to the rank they occupied. This does 
not imply the use of long tables, since even at the present day there are 
posts of honor at the round tables of the modern Egyptians. 

§8.— MODE OF DISTRIBUTING FOOD. 
XLIII, 34. He took and sent messes unto them from before 
him : but Benjamin's mess was five times so much as any 
of theirs. 

1. The ancient Egyptian mode of dining seems to have resembled the 
Persian rather than the Turkish. Different kinds of food were taken from 
the large dishes on which the cook had placed them, and were put on one 
smaller dish which was carried by a servant to the guest. In this instauce 
Joseph saw that his brethren were well supplied from his own table. 

2. Special respect was shown to guests of distinction by sending them 
some choice dainty, or a larger portion of food than was given to the others. 
Thus Joseph honored Benjamin with a five-fold portion, which must be 
considered the greater honor when we learn that a double portion was re- 
garded sufficiently complimentary to a king. In Joseph's estimation his 
brother Benjamin was worth more than two kings. 

§9.— THE BOWL. 

XLIV, 2. Put my cup, the silver cup, in the sack's mouth 
of the youngest. 

The gdbia, here rendered "cup," was more properly a bowl, and was dis- 
tinguished from the kosoth, or smaller cups, into which the liquid was poured 
from the gabia. The distinction is made in Jer. xxxv, 5, where the two 
words are used. 

90— THE DIVINING CUP. 

XLIV, 5. Is not this it in which my lord drinketh, and where- 
by indeed he divineth ? 

The question whether Joseph actually practiced divination, or only pre- 
tended to do so. or merely instructed his steward to ask an ironical question, 
or whether the original words may not have a different interpretation from 



Genesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 53 

that which the translators have put upon them, is one which concerns the com- 
mentator rather than the archaeologist. It is an admitted fact that divining 
cups were used among the Egyptians and other nations. These cups bore 
certain magical inscriptions, and when used were rilled with pure water. 
Authorities all agree as far as this, but they differ as to the use which was 





18. — Egyptian Divining Cup. 

made of the cup after the water was poured into it. We give the statements 
of various writers, and it is quite probable that they are all correct, different 
modes being used at different times. 

1. The divination was performed by means of the figures which were 
reflected by the rays of light which were permitted to fall on the water. 
2. Melted wax was poured into the water, and the will of the gods was 
interpreted by the variously shaped figures formed in this way. 3. The 
cup was shaken, and the position, size, or number of the bubbles which rose 
to the surface was considered. 4. There were thrown into the water plates 
of gold and of silver, and precious stones, with magical characters engraved 
on them. Words of incantation were muttered. Then some of the signs 
engraved on the stones were reflected in the water, or a voice was supposed 
to be heard, or the likeness of the deceased person concerning whom 
the inquiry was made was thought to appear in the water. 5. The 

4 



54 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

inquirer fixed his eye on some particular point in the cup until he was 
thrown into a dream-like or clairvoyant state, when he could see things 
strange and indescribable. 

91.— LOUD WEEPING. 

XLY, 2. He wept aloud. : and. the Egyptians and the house 
of Pharaoh heard. 

In the East emotions of joy as well as of sorrow are expressed by loud 
cries. Sir John Chardm (cited by Harmer, Observations, vol. iii, p. 17) says, 
"Their sentiments of joy or of grief are properly transports ; and their 
transports are ungoverned, excessive, and truly outrageous." He also 
states that when any one returns from a long journey his family burst into 
cries that may be heard twenty doors off. In like manner Joseph and his 
brethren, in their joy at meeting, indulged in excessive weeping. 

92— EGYPTIAN WAGONS. 

XLV, 19. Take you. wagons out of the land of Egypt for your 
little ones, and for your wives, and bring your father, and 
come. 

Wilkinson supposes these wagons to have been similar to the war 
chariots, but with the sides closed. They had wheels with six spokes, and 
were drawn by oxen, which were harnessed the same as horses for the war 
chariots. In traveling the wagon was furnished with a sort of umbrella. 
It is evident from the narrative thaf wagons were at that time strange in 
Canaan. The sight of these Egyptian conveyances confirmed to the mind of 
Jacob the statement of his sons. See verse 27. Rosenmuller aptly sug- 
gests that Egypt was more likely than Canaan to develop the idea of a wagon, 
because it was a great plain. — Morgenland, vol. i, p. 212. 

93.— GIFTS OF RAIMENT. 

XLV, 22. To all of them he gave each man changes of rai- 
ment ; but to Benjamin he gave three hundred pieces of 
silver, and five changes of raiment. 

Presents of costly and beautiful garments are among the modes of compli- 
menting in use by the Orientals. Since the fashions of dress do not change 
as with us, these gifts are valuable as long as they last. These "changes 
of raiment " were designed to be worn on special occasions. Other biblical 
references are made to this custom of presenting gifts of clothing. Samson 
offered raiment to any who should guess his riddle. Judges xiv, 12, 13, 19. 
When Naaman visited Elisha he took with him, among other gifts, " ten 
changes of raiment." 2 Kings v, 5. Even Solomon did not disdain to 
receive such presents. 2 Chron. ix, 24. Daniel was clothed with scarlet as 
a reward for interpreting the king's dream. Dan. v, 29. It is said of an 



Gonesis.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 55 

illustrious Oriental poet of the ninth century, that he had so many presents 
made him during his life-time that at his death he had one hundred com. 
plete suits of clothes, two hundred shirts, and five hundred turbans. The 
Hindoos, at the close of a feast, commonly give to each guest a present of 
new garments. See also the notes on 1 Sam. xix, 24; Esther vi, 8; and 
Job xxvii, 16. 

94.— EYES CLOSED. 
XLVI, 4. Joseph shall put his hand upon thine eyes. 
It was an ancient custom that the nearest of kin should close the eyes of 
a deceased person, and give a parting kiss to the corpse. It was a comfort- 
ing assurance to Jacob that his beloved Joseph, whom he had for many 
years mourned as dead, should perform this filial office for him. At Jacob's 
death we are told that Joseph kissed him, (Gen. 1, I,) and it is to be presumed 
that he also closed the eyes of the patriarch, as God had promised. 

95.— HATRED OF SHEPHERDS. 
XLVI, 34. Every shepherd, is an abomination unto the 
Egyptians. 

Frequent illustrations of the contempt iu which the Egyptians held shep- 
herds are seen on the ancient monuments : the shepherds being invariably 
represented as lank, withered, distorted, emaciated specimens of humanity. 
Concerning the cause of this feeling there are different opinions. It is certain 
that cattle were not by any means considered unclean by the Egyptians : 
The cow was sacred to Isis, and oxen were used for food and for labor ; it 
is not likely, therefore, that taking care of them could have been considered 
polluting. The objection was not to the tending of cattle — which in itself is 
as necessary as the cultivation of the soil — but rather to the vagrant mode 
of life to which the shepherds were addicted, and which was opposed to the 
designs and policy of the ruling caste. When the foundations of the state 
rested on agriculture the Egyptians associated rudeness and barbarism with 
the name of shepherd. " 

Besides this, Egypt had at one time been invaded by a horde of wandering 
shepherds, descended from Cush. They established themselves in the 
country and had a succession of kings. They fought the Egyptians, burned 
some of their principal cities, committed great cruelties, and were not driven 
out until they and their descendants had occupied the country for hundreds 
of years. Some suppose that their expulsion took place only a short time 
before Joseph's day. 

Joseph skillfully availed himself of this well-known Egyptian hatred of shep- 
herds for the purpose of having his brethren settled in a rich pastoral region, 
and isolated from the native Egyptians, thus keeping them a peculiar people. 



56 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

96.— TOKEN OF TRIUMPH. 
XLIX, 8. Thy hand shall be in the neck of thine enemies. 

This expression is intended to denote superiority and triumph. Job 
makes use of a similar figure where he represents God as taking him by the 
neck and shaking him to pieces. Job xvi, 12. David says, " Thou hast also 
given me the necks of mine enemies." 2 Sam. xxii, 41; Psalm xviii, 40. 
Jeremiah, lamenting the desolations of his people, says, {4 Our necks are 
under persecution." Lam. v, 5. The ancient Franks had a custom of put- 
ting the arm around the neck as a mark of superiority. An insolvent debtor 
gave himself up to his creditor as a slave, and as a token of submission he 
took the arm of his new master and put it around his neck. 

Compare notes on Josh, x, 24, and 1 Cor. xv, 25. 

97.— MILK HIGHLY ESTEEMED. 
XLIX, 12. His teeth white with milk. 

This is meant to represent the pastoral wealth of Judah. Milk is, in the 
East, a very important and highly valued article of diet. In India it is 
sometimes said of a rich man, " He lias abundance of milk." A saying 
somewhat similar to this, but more closely resembling the text, is applied to 
one who has a plentiful supply of milk: "His mouth smells of milk." 

98.— EMBALMING— MOURNING. 

L, 2. 8. Joseph commanded his servants the physicians to em- 
balm his father: and the physicians embalmed Israel. And 
forty days were fulfilled for him • for so are fulfilled the days 
of those which are embalmed : and the Egyptians mourned 
for him threescore and ten days. 

1. Among the ancient Egyptians there were numerous classes of physi- 
cians, divided according to the various diseases which were their special sub- 
jects of study. They were not general practitioners, but specialists ; hence 
their number was large. Joseph had them among his retainers. The 
Taricheuta, who superintended the process of embalming, were included among 
physicians as a special but subordinate class. They, in common with the 
higher class of physicians, belonged to the sacerdotal order. 

2. There were different processes of embalming, varying according to the 
means at the disposal of the family of the deceased. The most expensive 
(and doubtless the mode by which Jacob and Joseph were embalmed) is 
estimated to have cost what would be equivalent to about twelve hundred 
and fifty dollars of our money. Preparatory to this process, the brain was 
removed by means of a crooked wire inserted through the nose. An incis- 
ion was then made in the left side of the abdomen with a stone knife, the 



Genesis.] 



BIBLE HANKERS AND CUSTOMS. 



0< 



use of metal not being permitted.* Through this incision the viscera were 
drawn, with the exception of the heart and kidneys. They were sometimes 
replaced after being prepared for preservation, and in other instances were 
put into vases. Some authorities assert that they were thrown into the 
river Nile ; but this is denied by others. 

After the removal of the viscera the body was carefully washed exter- 
nally with water, and internally with palm -wine, oil of cedar, and other 
antiseptic preparations. The cavities of the head and abdomen were filled 
with myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, and other aromatic substances, and the incis- 
ion in the abdomen was sewed up. The body was then steeped in a strong 
infusion of niter. The time occupied by this steeping process is variously 
stated at thirty, forty, and seventy days. It may have varied at different 
periods of Egyptian history, or in different parts of the land at the same 
time. Some have supposed that forty days were allowed for the embalming 
proper, and thirty for the steeping in niter. 

When this process was completed the body and limbs were carefully 
wrapped in bandages of fine linen, plastered on the underside with gum. 
These bandages were seven or eight inches in width, and were sometimes 
six or seven hundred feet long. At this stage of the process the body seems 
to have been in some way subjected to extreme 1 eat. precisely how is not 




Different Stages of Embalming. 



known. Some have conjectured that it was soaked in pitch, boiling hot; 
others that it was put into a stove or oven. That extreme heat was applied 
in some way is evident from the charred bandages and from the appearance 
of the bones. 

♦Three of these ancient stone knives are now in the Abhott collection, and also a saucer 
containing a gray embalming powder. 



58 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Genesis. 

Layers of cloth, plastered with lime on the inside, were next placed on the 
body in a damped condition, fitting- exactly to its shape, These layers were 
put on in sufficient numbers to make a thick case, which, when it was fin- 
ished, was taken off until it became hardened, when it was replaced, and 
sewed up at the back. It was painted and ornamented with various figures, 
and in many instances was gilded. The part immediately over the face was 
made to resemble, as near as possible, the features of the deceased. The 
whole was then put into another case made of sycamore or cedar, and 
sometimes there was in addition an outside case made of the same material, 
or a sarcophagus of stone. 

It is not positively known why the Egyptians embalmed the bodies of 
their dead. Some think that they believed the existence of the soul de- 
pended on that of the body, and hence desired to preserve the body as long 
as possible. Others suppose that they expected the soul at some distant 
future day to return to the body, and for that reason wished to preserve the 
body for its reception. 

The oldest mummy known to the civilized world is now in the British 
Museum. "It is supposed to be that of Pharaoh Mycerinus, (Menkare,) of 
the fourth dynasty, the builder of the third great Pyramid at Gizeh. with 
whose coffin it was found by Colonel Vyse, in 1837. "What is left of the 
coffin lies close by; it is unquestionably a very early piece of Egyptian 
work; wooden pegs instead of nails kept it together. Hieroglyphics are 
still seen on a portion of the lid and on the foot-piece ; these, and especially 
the oval containing the name of Mycerinus, have been preserved with a fresh- 
ness which is only to be accounted for by the extreme dryness of the climate 
of Egypt." — Handy Book of the British Museum, by T. Nichols, p. 145. 

3. There is a special significance in the seventy days' mo\irning for Jacob 
if the custom at that time were the same as in the. days of Diodorus Siculus, 
who was in Egypt about forty years before the time of Christ. He says that 
on the death of a king the Egyptians put on mourning apparel and closed 
all their temples for seventy-two days, during which time the embalming 
proceeded. It would seem, therefore, that Pharaoh ordered royal honors on 
the occasion of the death of his prime minister's father. 

99.— WHY JOSEPH COULD NOT SEE THE KING. 

L, 4. When the days of his mourning -were past, Joseph spake 
unto the house of Pharaoh. 

The reason why Joseph did not himself prefer his request to the king, but 
solicited the intervention of his friends, is to be found in the fact that, having 
allowed his hair and beard to grow during the seventy days of mourning, he 
was not in a condition to appear before Pharaoh in the manner required by 
the etiquette of the court. See note on Gen. xli, 14. 



Geii3sis.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



59 



100.— LARGE FUNERALS. 
L, 9. There went up with him ... a very great company. 

This not only shows the high esteem in which Joseph was held, but it 
also furnishes an illustration of the Egyptian fashion of large and stately 




). — Ancient Egyptian Funeral Peocession. 



funeral processions. The custom existed in every province in Egypt, and in 
every age of its history. 

101.— THRESHING-FLOORS. 

L, 10. They came to the threshing-floor of Atad, which is 
beyond. Jordan. 

The "threshing-floor" was not a shed, or a building, or anyplace covered 
with roof and surrounded by walls, but a circular piece of ground from 
fifty to a hundred feet in diameter, in the open air, ou elevated ground, and 
made smooth, hardy, and clean. Here the grain was threshed and winnowed. 



102.— EGYPTIAN COFFINS. 

L, 26. So Joseph died, being a hundred and ten years old : 
and they embalmed him, and he was put in a coffin in 
Egypt. 

Though so much care was taken in ancient Egypt to embalm the body, 
there were many who were buried without coffins. The mention of the fact 
here that "Joseph was put in a coffin," shows the high rank to which he 
had attained. His coffin was probably the outside receptacle or sarcopha- 
gus described in the note on Gen. 1, 2. 3. Whether it was of wood or of 
stone we have no means of knowiug; the latter material would more prob- 
ably be used for so exalted a personage. 



60 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. 



EXODUS. 

103.— ARK— USE OF BITUMEN. 
II, 3. She took for him an ark of bulrushes, and daubed, it 
with slime and with pitch. 

1. The precise form of this little " ark " is unknown. It may have been a 
basket, a boat, or a box. It was made of the leaf of the papyrus, a reedy 
plant which grew plentifully on the banks of the Nile, and which was used 
by the Egyptians for cordage, baskets, boats, sails, writing material, and a 
variety of other purposes ; even sometimes for food. 

2. The " slime " or bitumen is described in the note on Gen. xi, 3. We have 
here an illustration of the manner of its use. Though melting easily and run- 
ning freely, when cold it is very brittle ; but if mixed with tar it becomes tena- 
cious when set, and makes a firm cement. In preparing the little vessel for 
the reception of the infant Moses, it is probable that the papyrus leaves 
were first plaited together, and then coated with a mixture of hot bitumen 
and tar, which when cold became firm and water-proof. 

104.— BATHING IN THE NILE. 

II, 5. The daughter of Pharaoh came down to wash herself 
at the river ; and her maidens walked along by the river's 
side. 

It would be quite inconsistent with modern Oriental ideas of propriety for 
women to bathe thus publicly; but among the ancient Egyptians it was 
admissible. Wilkinson (Anc. Egypt, vol. hi, p. 389) gives a picture from 
the monuments representing an Egyptian woman of rank oathing, attended 
by four female servants. The Nile was regarded as a sacred river, and 
divine honors were sometimes paid to it. Harraer (Obs., vol. iii, p. 531) gives 
a quotation from Irwin's travels, in which the traveler tells of a company of 
dancing girls who went down to the Nile in the spring of the year to bathe 
in it, and to sing songs while marching along its banks, in honor of the fact 
that the waters of the river had begun their annual rise and overflow. It 
may have been some such sacred ceremony in which Pharaoh's daughter 
and her maidens were engaged at the time when Moses was found. 

105.— AN EXCEPTIONAL MARRIAGE CUSTOM. 

II, 21. He gave Moses Zipporah his daughter. 

In general the proposal of marriage came from the family of the bride- 
groom ; but occasionally this custom was reversed, as in the case referred to 
in the text. Caleb gave his daughter Achsah to Othniel. Josh, xv, 16, 17. 
Saul s:ave his daughter Miehal to David. 1 Sam. xviii, 27. 



Exodus.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



61 



106.— VARIED PASTURE GROUNDS. 

Ill, 1. Moses kept the floek of Jethro his father-in- law, the 
priest of Midian : and. he led the floek to the back side of the 
desert. 

In Arabia shepherds do not limit the pasturage of their flocks to places 
near at home, but wander sometimes long distances, being gone from home 
for weeks and months in pursuit of new pasture grounds. The Midianites 
had the principal place of their residence somewhere on the eastern border 
of Edom, but they pastured their flocks as far as Gilead and Bashan on the 
north, and on the south they went along both shores of the iElanitic Gulf. 



-SHOES REMOVED. 

feet 



for the place 



107. 

Ill, 5. Put off thy shoes from off thy 
whereon thou standest is holy ground. 

Orientals are as careful to remove their shoes or sandals before entering a 
house, or a place 
of worship, as we 
are to remove our 
hats. Piles of shoes, 
slippers, or sandals, 
may be seen at the 
doors of Moham- 
medan mosques 
and of Indian 
pagodas ; it is a 
mark of respect 
due to those places. 
Moses was in this 
way directed to 
show his reverence 
for the Divine Pres- 
ence. In like man- 
ner, when Joshua 
met " the captain of 
the Lord's host," 
near Jericho, he 
was required to re- 
move his shoes. Josh, v, 15. It was so unusual a thing to wear shoes in the 
house that on one important occasion when it was to be done it was neces- 
sary especially to command it. See note on Exod. xii, 11. 




Shoes Taken Off. 



62 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. 

10§.— JEWELRY AT RELIGIOUS FEASTS. 
Ill, 22. Every woman shall borrow of her neighbor, and of 
her that sojourneth in her house, jewels of silver, and jewels 
of gold, and raiment: and ye shall put them upon your sons, 
and upon your daughters ; and ye shall spoil the Egyptians. 

With the controversy that has arisen among commentators in reference to 
the meaning of the borrowing, the lending, and the spoiling, spoken of in 
this text and in Exod. xi, 1-3; xii, 35, 36, we have nothing to do in this 
work.* We notice the text only as it has reference to Eastern customs. It 
must be remembered that the Israelites were about to go into the wilderness 
to sacrifice to Jehovah. Roberts says: "When the Orientals go to their 
sacred festivals they always put on their best jewels. Not to appear before 
the gods in such a way they consider would be disgraceful to themselves 
and displeasing to the deities. A person whose clothes or jewels are in- 
different will borrow of his richer neighbors; and nothing is more common 
than to see poor people standing before the temples, or engaged in sacred 
ceremonies, well adorned with jewels." — Oriental Illustrations, p. 10. 

If this custom obtained among the ancient Egyptians, the transaction 
recorded in the text would be perfectly natural. 

109— EGYPTIAN BRICKS. 

V, 7. Ye shall no more give the people straw to make brick, 
as heretofore : let them go and gather straw for themselves. 

The ancient Egyptian bricks were made of clay moistened with water 
and then put into molds. After they were sufficiently dry to be removed 
from the molds, they were laid in rows on a flat spot exposed to the sud, 
which gradually hardened them. Some were made with straw and some 
without. Many had chopped barley and wheat straw; 
others bean haulm and stubble. The use of this crude 
brick was general in Egypt for dwellings, tombs, and 
ordinary buildings, walls of towers, fortresses, and sa- 
cred inclosures of temples. Even temples of a small 
size were sometimes built of unburnt brick, and several 
pyramids of this material are still to be seen_Jn Egypt. 
The use of stone was confined mainly to temples, quays, 
and reservoirs. 
22.— Egyptian Brick. Egyptian bricks were frequently stamped with the 

* Those who desire to see an exhaustive, presentation of the various views of commenta- 
tors on this subject may find it in Kurtz's History of the Old Covenant, (Clark's Foreign 
Theological Librar)',) vol. ii, pp. 319-334. Kurtz's conclusion is, "that the articles were not 
obtained by borrowing and purloining, but were spoils which came to the Israelites in the 
shape of presents, though they were forced from the Egyptians by moral constraint." 




Exodus. j BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 63 

name of the king during whose reign they-were made. They differ in size 
from the Babylonian bricks. They are from fourteen and a half to twenty 
inches long, from six and a half to eight and three quarter inches wide, 
and from four and a half to seven inches thick. Several bricks bearing the 
name of Thothmes III., and plainly showing the chopped straw used in 
their manufacture, are in the Abbott Collection, which also contains some 
of the ancient implements which were used in brick-making. 

110.— HARD LABOR A PUNISHMENT. 
V, 11. Go ye, get you straw where ye can find, it: yet not 
aught of your work shall be diminished. 

M. Chabas. a French Egyptologist, discovered some years since a papyrus 
the writing on which, when deciphered, proved to be the report of a scribe, 
to the effect that twelve workingmen who had been employed at brick-mak- 
ing had failed in their tasks, and had therefore been appointed to harder 
work as a punishment. There is no evidence that these workmen were 
Hebrews, but the fact shows that the cruelty inflicted on the Hebrews by 
their task-masters was in accordance with the customs of the country. See 
Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. xxii, p. 685. 

111.— IRRIGATION. ' 
VII, 19. ... upon the waters of Egypt, upon their streams, 
upon their rivers, and upon their ponds, and upon all their 
pools of water. 

Eor purposes of irrigation canals were cut in various directions, and arti- 
ficial pools were made to receive the waters of the Nile at its annual over- 
flow. See notes on Deut. xi, 10, and Psa. i, 3. 

112.— RECEPTACLES FOR NILE WATER. 

VII, 19. That there may be blood throughout all the land of 
Egypt* both in vessels of wood and in vessels of stone. 

These included all the vessels in which the Nile water was kept for daily 
use, among which were filtering pots of white earth. There were also stone 
reservoirs at the corners of the streets, and at other places, for the use of 
the poor. 

113.— REVERENCE FOR RIVERS— ABHORRENCE OF BLOOD. 
VII, 20. All the waters that -were in the river were turned 
to blood. 

1. Many ancient nations had great reverence for rivers. The Egyptians, 
sharing this feeling, regarded the Nile as a sacred stream, and worshiped it 
as a deity, calling it " the Father of life," and " the Father of the gods." 

2. The Egyptians, especially the priests, were very particular in their ex- 
ternal habits, and there was nothing which they held in jyrea'er abhorrence 



64 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. 

than blood, seldom admitting any bloody sacrifices. Their horror must there- 
fore have been extreme when they found the river, which they worshiped 
as a god, turned into blood, which they regarded with such utter disgust. 

114.— NILE WATER. 
VII, 21. The fish that was in the river died. ; and the river 
stank, and the Egyptians could not drink of the water of the 
river. 

The extent of this calamity will be seen when it is remembered that the 
waters of the Nile were to the Egyptians then, as now, the great source of 
dependence for drinking and for culinary purposes. The spring water is 
hard and unwholesome, wells are seldom found, and rain water cannot be 
collected because it hardly ever rains. The inhabitants are therefore driven 
to the river, which all travelers agree in saying furnishes as sweet and 
wholesome water as can be found in tie world. It is at first very thick and 
muddy, but can be readily filtered. The Egyptians say that " Nile-water is 
as sweet as honey and sugar." Great indeed must have been the misfor- 
tune when this universal supply of one of the greatest necessaries of life 
was cut off. 

115.— ASHES USED IN CURSING. 

IX, 8. Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let 
Moses sprinkle it toward the heaven in the sight of Pharaoh. 

"When the [East Indian] magicians pronounce an imprecation on an 
individual, a village, or a country, they take ashes of cow-dung, or those 
from a common fire, and throw them in the air, saying to the objects of their 
displeasure, ' Such a sickness or such a curse shall surely come upon you.' " 
— Roberts, Oriental Illustrations, p. 65. 

116.— THE OUTSTRETCHED HAND. 

X, 21. The Lord said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand 
toward heaven. 

This is the custom of the Indian magicians when they deliver their pre- 
dictions. It is done to show that they have favor with their gods. 

117.— SHOES WITHIN DOORS. 
XII, 11. Thus shall ye eat it; with your loins girded, your 
shoes on your feet, and your staff in your hand; and ye 
shall eat it in haste. 

1. While it would be quite superfluous to direct us to have shoes on while 
eating, the Israelites would not put them on without being ordered. This 
was in accordance with the custom referred to in the note on Exod. iii, 5, q. v. 
The reason for their violating their ordinary usage is here given : they were 
in ha?te. 



Exodus.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



65 



2. Roberts mentions a sect in India called Urechamanar, who eat their 
food standing, having their sandals on their feet, and a staff or a bnnch of 
peacock feathers in their hands. 



11§.— DOUGH— KNEADING-TROUGHS. 

XII, 34 The people took their dough before it was leavened, 
their kneading-troughs being bound up in their clothes upon 
their shoulders. 

1. The dough was made by mixing flour with water, or, perhaps, with 
milk. It was then kneaded with the hands ; in Egypt the feet also were 
used. When the kneading was completed leaven was generally added. See 
note on Matt, xiii, 33. 

2. The kneading-troughs were either small wooden bowls, such as the 
Arabs now use for 
kneading dough, 
and into which 
their bread is put 
after it is baked, 
or they may have 
been similar to the 
leather utensil de- 
scribed by Pococke, 
Niebuhr, and other 
travelers. It is a 
round piece of 
leather, having iron 
rings at certain 
distances around it, 
through which a 
chain is passed, so 
that it may, when 
not in use, be 
drawn together 
like a purse and 23.— Kneamng-Teotjgh. 

hung up. The Arabs, when they travel, sometimes carry dough in it, and 
sometimes bread. 

119.— EGYPTIAN CHARIOTS. 
XIV, 6. He made ready his chariot. 

The Egyptian chariot was a framework of wood, nearly semicircular 
in front, having straight sides and open behind. The front was of wood, 
and the sides were strengthened and ornamented with leather and metal 
bindings. The floor was of rope net- work, to give a springy footing. The 




66 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Exodus. 



fittings of the inside and the harness were of raw hide or tanned leather. 

On the sides quivers and bow-cases were fastened, crossing each other. ' The 

wheels were low, had six 
spokes, and were kept on the 
axle by a leather thong or 
linch-pin. There was no 
seat in the chariot. The 
number of horses to each 
chariot was two. 

The chariot of the king did 
not differ materially from 
ordinary war-chariots. He, 
however, usually rode alone 
into battle, having the reins 
fastened around his waist, 
leaving both hands free to 
manage his weapons of war. 




Egyptian Wak-Chartot. 



Jehu seems to have imitated the custom uf Egyptian monarchs in driving 
his own chariot. See 2 Kings ix, 20. 

120.— "THIRD MEN." 
XIY, 7. He took six hundred chosen chariots, and all the char- 
iots of Egypt, and captains over every one of them. 

The word rendered captains is, literally, third men. Usually each war- 
chariot carried two men: the charioteer, who was an important character, and 
the warrior. Sometimes, however, there was a third man, who had direction 
of the two others. The strength of Pharaoh's chariot force is seen, then, in 
this, that he had, besides the usual pair of men to each chariot, a third man 
or "captain." Thus one might act as charioteer, one as warrior, and one 
as shield-bearer. 

121.— NIGHT-WATCHES. 

XIV, 24. It came to pass, that in the morning watch the Lord 
looked unto the host of the Egyptians. 

Before the captivity, the Hebrews divided the night into three watches. 
The first was from sunset to ten o'clock ; the second from ten o'clock to two ; 
the third from two o'clock to sunrise. The first was called the " beginning 
of the watches." Lam. ii, 19. The second was called the "middle watch." 
Judges vii, 19. The third was called the "morning watch," as in the text, 
and* also in 1 Sam. xi, 11. 

This mode of dividing time is also referred to in Psa. lxiii, 6 ; cxix, 148. 
The Psalmist meditated on G-od and his word in the "night-watches." 

For a later method of dividing the watches, see note on Mark xiii, 35. 



Exodus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 67 

122.— EGYPTIAN CAVALRY. 
XV, 1. The horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea. 
Archaeologists are not agreed as to the existence of cavalry among the 
ancient Egyptians. This passage and others similar seem to refer to cavalry, 
but it is said by some to have reference only to chariot warriors, in distinction 
from foot soldiers. All agree in admitting that there are no representations 
of cavalry on the monuments. "Why they are not represented, if they were 
known, it is hard to say. Wilkinson insists, however, that there must have 
been Egyptian cavalry notwithstanding there are no monumental pictures of 
them. He refers to 2 Chron. xii, 3, where it is said that Shishak, king of 
Egypt, had twelve hundred chariots and sixty thousand horsemen. These 
horsemen are by far too numerous to be the occupants of the number of 
chariots given ; so that, however it may have been in the time of the Exodus, 
there must have been Egyptian cavalry five hundred years later. He 
further says that the hieroglyphics notice the "command of the cavalry" 
as a very honorable position, generally held by the most distinguished of the 
king's sons, and he also refers to ancient profane authors who speak of 
Egyptian cavalry. See Ancient Egyptians, vol. i, pp. 238, 292. 

123.— DANCING. 

XV, 20. All the women went out after her with timbrels and 
with dances. 

Dancing was pe* formed at first on sacred occasions only. It was a part of 
the religious ceremonies of the Egyptians as well as of the Hebrews, and was 
engaged in by many idolatrous nations, and often accompanied with scenes 
of debauchery. Among the Hebrews it was joined with sacred song, and 
was usually participated in by the women only. When the men danced it 
was in companies separate from the women, promiscuous dancing not being 
practiced. If the ancient Hebrew dances were like those of the modern 
Arabs, we can understand how Miriam led in the dance. One leads off in 
the step, and the others follow in exact imitation of all the varied move- 
ments that she makes. These movements are entirely extemporaneous, 
governed by no fixed rule, but varied at the pleasure of the leader. Danc- 
ing was usually performed by the Hebrews in the day-time, and in the open 
air. It was an outward expression of tumultuous joy. When Jephthah 
returned from his conquest over the Ammonites " his daughter came out to 
meet him with timbrels and with dances." Judges xi, 34. When the 
men of Benjamin surprised the daughters of Shiloh the latter were dancing 
at "a feast of the Lord." Judges xxi, 19-21. When David returned 
after the slaughter of Goliath, the Israelitish women met him with singing 
and daucing. 1 Sam. xviii, 6. When the ark was brought home, David 



68 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exolus. 

danced before it "with all his might." 2 Sam. vi, 14. Some suppose that 
the reason why Michal was offended at this was, not only because of his 
scanty costume, (as intimated in 2 Sara, vi, 20,) but also because he en- 
gaged in a service that usually pertained to women only, and hence was 
undignified and unbecoming in a king. On several occasions God's people 
are exhorted to praise the Lord in the dance. See Psa. cxlix, 3; cl, 4. 



124.— FLESH-POTS — DIET. 

XVI, 3. When we sat by the flesh-pots, and when we did 
eat bread to the full. 

1. The flesh-pot was a three-legged vessel of bronze, which the Egyptians 
used for culinary purposes. 

2. The ancient Egyptians were fond of animal food. They chiefly ate 
beef and goose, and also had an abundance of fish. The cow was sacred, 
and was noc eaten. Some writers assert that sheep were not eaten ; but 
the contrary is affirmed by others. 

3. Bread here is a generic term denoting vegetable diet. This the Egyp- 
tians had in large variety. See Num. xi, 5. 

125.— OMER— EPHAH. 
XVI, 36. Now an omer is the tenth part of an ephah. 

1. The omer or gomer was a dry measure supposed to contain two quarts, 
one pint, and one tenth, English corn measure. 

2. The ephah is supposed to have contained three pecks, one quart, and a 
pint. 

126.— CLEANLINESS IN WORSHIP. 

XIX, 10. The Lord said unto Moses, Go unto the people, and 
sanctify them to-day and to-morrow, and let them wash 
their clothes. 

This was considered a necessary preparation for meeting Jehovah. Pagans 
have similar ceremonies in connection with their worship. Roberts says: 
" No man can go to the temple wearing a dirty cloth : he must either put on 
a clean one, or go himself to a tank and wash it, if it be soiled ; or he must 
put on one which is quite new. Near the temples men may be often se^n 
washing their clothes, in order to prepare themselves for some religious cere- 
mony." — Oriental Illustrations. Jacob commanded his household to be clean 
and change their garments when they went up to Bethel to build an altar 
to Jehovah. G-en. xxxv, 2. 



Exodus] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 69 



127.— THORN-FIRES— GRAIN-HEAPS. 

XXII, 6. If fire break out, and eateh in thorns, so that the 
stacks of corn, or the standing corn, or the field, be con- 
sumed therewith, he that kindled the fire shall surely make 
restitution. 

1. Thorns grow plentifully around the edges of the fields, and intermingle 
with the wheat. "By harvest-time they are not only dry themselves, but 
are choked up with tall grass dry as powder. Fire, therefore, catches in 
them easily, and spreads with great rapidity and uncontrollable fury ; and as 
the grain is dead ripe, it is impossible to extinguish it." — Thomson. The Land 
and the Book, i, 529. The farmers are exceedingly careful of fire at such times 
The Arabs in the valley of the Jordan, according to Burckhardt, invariably 
put to death any person who fires the grass, even though it be done inno- 
cently. After the harvest, and before the autumnal rains set in, it is quite 
common to set the dry thorns and weeds on fire in order to clear the land 
for plowing, and to furnish a fertilizer from the ashes. 

2. The word " stacks " would be better rendered by heaps, since the grain 
was not put into stacks as with us; but being left uncut until fully ripe, it 
was, as soon as cut, gathered into heaps, ready for the threshing- floor. 

128.— BEASTS TO BE HELPED. 

XXIII, 5. If thou see the ass of him that hateth thee lying 
under his burden, and wouldest forbear to help him, thou 
shalt surely help with him. 

By reason of the roughness of the way. it was an easy matter for an ass, 
especially when overburdened, as was often the case, to fall to the ground, 
and it was also very difficult for the poor brute to extricate himself from 
the stones and hollows among which he fell. Hence this merciful law, re- 
quiring a man to help even his enemy when he finds him thus trying to aid 
an unfortunate brute. Wordsworth aptly suggests that this law sets the 
conduct of the priest and the Levite, in the parable of the Good Samaritan, in 
a most unenviable light, inasmuch as it shows them to have treated a fel- 
low-being with less regard than their law required them to treat an enemy's 
ass. Luke x, 31, 32. 

129.— PREPARATION FOR FESTIVALS. 

XXIII, 14. Three times thou shalt keep a feast unto me in 
the year. 

1. It is curious to notice how, at a time considerably later than the origin 
of these public festivals, the exact day of their occurrence was made known. 
In these days of almanacs and of exact astronomical calculations, we can hardly 
appreciate the difficulties thpy encountered in finding the right time. The 



70 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. 

first appearance of the new moon was the starting-point. To ascertain this 
the Sanhedrin took the deposition of two impartial witnesses as to the time 
they had seen it. They next spread the intelligence through the country by 
means of beacons. A person with a bundle of brushwood or straw went to 
the top of Mount Olivet, where he kindled his torch and waved it back and 
forth till he was answered by fires of a similar' nature from the surround ng 
hills. From these, in like manner, the intelligence was spread to others 
until the whole land was notified. After a time the Samaritans imitated the 
signs, thus making great confusion. This made it necessary to send mes- 
sengers all over the country. These, however, did not go abroad at every 
new moon, but only seven times during the year. In this way the time for 
these three great feasts — Passover, Pentecost, and Tabernacles — as well as for 
other important occasions, was published to the people. See citation from 
Maimonides in Brown's Antiquities of the Jews, vol. i, p. 424. 

2. These three festivals were preceded by a season of preparation, called 
peres, which lasted fifteen days. During this time each person was expected 
to meditate on xhe solemnity of the feast, and to undergo whatever legal 
purifications might be necessary. This is referred to in John xi, 55. Roads, 
bridges, streets, and public water-tanks were repaired for the convenience 
of travelers. 

3. All the males of Israel were expected to attend, excepting the aged, the 
infirm^ and infants who could not walk alone. They were commanded to 
bring offerings with them. 

130.— THE PASSOVER. 

XXIII, 15. Thou shalt keep the feast of unleavened, bread. 

Till-, the first of the three great feasts, is usually called the Passover, in 
commemoration of the passing over of the houses of the Israelites by the 
destroying angel, at the time when the first-born of the Egyptians were slain. 
The ancielit Jewish canons distinguish between what they term ; 'the 
Egyptian Passover" and "the Permanent Passover;" the former signifying 
the feast in its original form, and the latter representing it as modified in the 
subsequent years of tlie history of the people. The essential parts of the 
feast, were however, the same. It took place dnring the month Abib, or, 
as it was subsequently called, Nisan, corresponding very nearly with April 
of our calendar. See note on Deut. xvi, 1. While it lasted great care was 
taken to abstain from leaven. A he-lamb or kid of the first year was 
selected by the head of the family and was slain, its blood being sprinkled 
originally on the door-posts, and subsequently on the bottom of the altar. 
The animal was then roasted whole with fire, and eaten with unleavened 
bread and a salad of bitter herbs. It could not be boiled, nor must a hone of 
it be broken When they first ate it in Egypt the Israelites had their loins 



Exodus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 71 

girt and their shoes on, all ready for a journey, and they partook of it stand- 
ing, as if in haste to be away. In after years this position was changed to 
sitting or reclining. Not fewer than ten, nor more than twenty, persons 
were admitted to one of these feasts. Stanley (in his History of the Jewish 
Churchy vol. i, p. 559, Am. ed.) gives a deeply interesting account, from his 
personal observation, of the -modern observance of the Passover by the 
Samaritans For the mode of observing the Passover in our Lord's time, see 
notes on Matt, xxvi, 19, 20. 

It, is supposed by some writers that, aside from the general design of the 
Passover, as already stated, there was in some of its ceremonies an inten- 
tional Divine rebuke of the idolatry of heathen nations, and especially of 
that of the Egyptians. One of their deities was represented by a human body 
with a ram's head. To have a lamb slain, and its blood sprinkled on the door- 
posts, was an act of contempt against this deity. Some heathen people ate 
raw flesh in connection with their festivities. The passover lamb was to be 
cooked. This cooking was by roasting, for the Egyptians and Syrians some- 
times boiled the flesh of their sacrificial victims in water, and sometimes in 
milk:. It was to be roasted with fire, for the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and 
ancient Persians are said to have roasted their sacrifices in the sun. It was 
to be roasted whole, even to the intestines, for the heathen were in the habit 
of looking into these for omens, and sometimes even ate them raw. 

131.— FEAST OF HARVEST— FEAST OF TABERNACLES. 

XXIII. 16. The feast of harvest, the first-fruits of thy labors, 
which thou, hast sown in the field. : and. the feast of ingather- 
ing, which is in the end of the year, when thou hast gathered 
in thy labors out of the field. 

1. The Feast of Harvest is sometime* called the Feast of "Weeks, because 
of the " seven weeks " by which its time was determined. Deut. xvi, 9. 10. It 
is also called the Day of First-fruits, (Num. xxviii, 26,) because on that day the 
first loaves made from the wheat harvest were offered to the Lord. Its later 
name was Pentecost, because it occurred fifty days after Passover. These 
fifty days began with the offering of the first sheaf of the barley harvest 
during Passover week, (Lev. xxiii, 10,) and ended with the Feast of Harvest. 
This feast took place after the corn harvest, and before the vintage. 

Its design was primarily to give an expression of gratitude to God for the 
harvest which had been gathered ; but the Jews assert, that in addition to 
this, it was intended to celebrate the giving of the law on Siniai, which took 
place fifty days after the Passover. Maimonides says that the reason why 
the feast occupied but one day was because that was all the time occupied 
in giving the law. 

On this day the people rested from all labor. Two loaves, made of the 



72 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. 

new wheat, were offered before the Lord. These were leavened, in distinction 
to the Passover bread, which was unleavened. Lev. xxiii, 17. The Jews 
say that this was because the Passover was a memorial of the haste in 
which they departed from Egypt, when they had not time to get their bread 
leavened; while the Feast of Harvest was a token of thankfulness to God 
for their ordinary food. In addition to this offering of the loaves, every per- 
son was required to bring in a basket a portion of the first-fruits of the 
earth, and offer it unto the Lord. Deut. xxvi. 1-10. At the same time 
there was a burnt offering of seven young lambs, ODe young bullock, and two 
rams. A kid was given as a sin-offering, and two young lambs for a peace- 
offering. Lev. xxiii, 18, 19. 

2. The Feast of Ingathering, more generally known as the Feast of Taber- 
nacles, (Lev. xxiii, 34,) was instituted to remind the people that their fathers 
dwelt in tents in the wilderness. (Lev. xxiii. 43 ;) and also to be an annual 
thanksgiving after all the products of the eartli — corn, fruit, wine, and oil — 
were gathered for the year. Lev. xxiii, 39. It was held in the seventh month, 
Tizri, or Ethanim, corresponding to our October, and lasted for eight days ; 
during which time the people dwelt in booths made of the branches of palm, 
willow, and other trees. Lev. xxiii, 39-43. On eacli day there were offered 
in sacrifice two rams, fourteen lambs, and a kid for a burnt-offering. During 
the continuance of the feast seventy bullocks were offered, thirteen on the 
first day, twelve on the second, eleven on the third, and so on, the number 
being diminished by one on each day until the seventh day, when only seven 
were offered. The eighth day was a day of peculiar solemnity, and had for 
its special offerings a bullock, a ram, and seven lambs for a burnt-offering, and 
a goat for a sin-offering. Num. xxix, 12-38. On the Sabbatical year, the 
Feast of Tabernacles was still further celebrated by a public reading of the 
law. Deut. xxxi, 10-13. "Whether this was intended to include the whole 
law, or only certain portions, and if so, what portions, is matter of dispute. 

Other ceremonies than these, originally instituted, were afterward added. 
See note on John vii, 37. 

These festivals at the gathering of harvests were not peculiar to the He- 
brews, but were in use among many Gentile nations. "The ancient sacri- 
fices, assemblies, and conventions for sacrifices, were made at the gathering 
in of the fruits and productions of the earth, as the season of greatest lei- 
sure and rest." Aristotle, cited by Maimoxides, Reasons, etc., p. 257. 

132.— ANNUAL PILGRIMAGES. 

XXIII, 17. Three times in the year all thy males shall appear 
before the Lord. God. 

This great and sudden increase in the population of the sacred city — for 
it was to Jerusalem that the male inhabitants went, after they were settled 



Exodus.] BTBLE MANNEBS AND CUSTOMS. 73 

in Canaan — could be accommodated much more easily than at first might be 
supposed. Three times a year these pilgrims were looked for, and every ar- 
rangement was doubtless made for their reception, while those who could 
not find room in the houses could pitch their tents in the streets or on the 
outskirts of the city. When the Mohammedans, in countless numbers, make 
their great pilgrimage to Mecca, they carry with them provisions enough to 
last during the journey both ways, and also during their stay in the city. 
They take from their homes butter, honey, oil, olives, rice, and bread, be- 
sides provender for camels and asses. They dwell in tents until their 
return. 

133.— FORBIDDEN SEETHING. 

XXIII, 19. Thou, shalt not seetne a kid in his mother's milk. 

As this injunction is put in connection with sacrifices and festivals, it 
seems to have referred to some idolatrous practices of the heathen. Cud- 
worth says, on the authority of an ancient Karaite Comment on the Pentateuch, 
that it was an ancient heathen custom to boil a kid in the dam's milk, and 
then besprinkle with it all the trees, fields, gardens, and orchards. This was 
done at the close of their harvests for the purpose of making trees and fields 
more fruitful the following year. It will be noticed that the injunction of 
the text is given in connection with the feast of harvest. 

Thomson says, that the Arabs " select a young kid, fat and tender, dress it 
carefully, and then stew it in milk, generally sour, mixed with onions and 
hot spices such as they relish. They call it Lebn immu — kid, ' in his moth- 
er's milk.' The Jews, however, will not eat it." — Tfie Land and the Book, 
vol. i, 135. 

134.— THE CUBIT. 

XXV, 10. Two cubits and a half shall be the length thereof, 
and a cubit and a half the breadth thereof, and a cubit and a 
half the height thereof. 

The word cubit is derived directly from the Latin cubitus, the lower arm. 
The Hebrew word is ammali, the mother of the arm, that is, the fore-arm. 
It is evidently a measure taken from the human body; as were other meas- 
ures of length among the Hebrews and other nations. There seem to be 
two kinds of cubits, and some say three kinds, mentioned in Scripture. In 
Deut. Hi, 11, we read of "the cubit of a man." In 2 Chron. hi, 3, ''cubits 
after the first [or old] measure " are spoken of. In Ezek. xli, 8, we are told 
of "great cubits," each one of which, according to Ezek. xl, 5, measured a 
"cubit and a handbreadth." Some writers suppose these to represent three 
different measures of length; while others regard the first and second as 
identical, thus making but two kinds of cubits. Whether two or three can- 
not now be determined. It is no easier to decide as to the length of any 
one of the cubits named. Various estimates of the Mosaic cubit have been 



7-1 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. 

given, varying from twelve inches to twenty-two. The ancient Egyptian 
cubit was nearly twenty-one inches, which some of the best authorities now 
estimate as the length of the Mosaic. Other authorities, however, equally 
worthy of consideration, claim that the length of the Mosaic cubit, as ap- 
plied to the Tabernacle and Temple, was eighteen inches ; and that the Jews 
did not use the cubit of twenty-one inches — which was Babylonian as well 
as Egyptian — until after the captivity. 

135.— BEATEN OIL. 

XXVII, 20. Pure oil-olive beaten for the light. 

This is supposed to have been oil which was obtained from olives not fully 
ripe, and pounded in a mortar instead of being put iuto a press. It was 
considered the best and purest, having a whiter color and better flavor, and 
yielding a clearer light than the ordinary oil from the press. Solomon made 
an annual present of this sort of oil to Hiram. 1 Kings v, 11. It is also 
mentioned in Exod. xxix, 40 ; Lev. xxiv, 2 ; Num. xxviii, 5. It may have 
been what is known as "cold drawn oil." See note on Psa. xcii, 10. 

136.— THE SPAN. 

XXVIII, 16. A span shall be the length thereof, and. a span 
shall be the breadth thereof. 

The span (zereih) is the distance between the extremities of the thumb 
and outside finger of the outstretched hand. It is half a cubit. 

1ST.— METALLIC IDOLS. 

XXXII, 4. He received them at their hand, and fashioned it 
with a graving tool, after he had made it a molten ealf. 

Most of the large idols worshiped by the ancients were first made of wood 
and then covered with plates of metal. We find illustrations of this in Isa. 
xxx, 22, and xl, 19. See also Nahum i, 14; Hab. ii. 18. A wooden image (or 
one of stone; see Hab. ii, 19) was first prepared, and the gold was then cast 
into a flat sheet which the goldsmith hammered and spread out into plating 
which was fastened on the wooden form. Thus the goldsmith first melted 
the gold, and then used " a graving tool " to fashion it to the shape of the 
image. Aaron's molten calf seems to have been made in this manner. " This 
is evident from the way in which it was destroyed: the image was first of 
all burnt, and then beaten or crushed to pieces, and pounded or ground to 
powder, (Deut. ix, 21 ;) that is, the wooden center was first burnt into char- 
coal, and then the golden covering beaten or rubbed to pieces; verse 20, 
compared with Deut. ix, 21." — Keil. 

See further note on Isa. xliv, 10. 



Exodus.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



7 



13§.— CALF WORSHIP. 
XXXII, 6. They rose up early on the morrow, and. offered 
burnt offerings ; and brought peace offerings ; and the people 
sat down to eat and to drink, and rose up to play. 

''' This expression [play — Heb. tsacheJc, to laugh ; and so rendered in Gen 
xxi, 6] often signifies dancing among the ancients. It probably refers here 
to some mystic dance which imitated the course of the stars. The sun-god 
was represented by the ancients by the image of a bull. Its worship was 
well known to the Israelites because the Egyptians paid honor to the bull 
Apis in Memphis; and earlier than this to the bull Mnevis in On, by which 
name the Greek Heliopolis (City of the Sun) was called. On was near 
the land of Goshen, which was given to the Israelites when they were 
brought from Canaan to Egypt." — 
Stollberg's History of Religion, vol. ii, 
p. 121 ; cit. by Rosenmuller, Mor gen- 
land, vol. ii, p. 134. 

The Egyptian idolaters worshipe< 
deity under animal forms, thus differing 
from many other nations of antiquity 
whose deities were in human form. 
They kept live animals in some of their 
temples, and exhibited representations of 
them in others. The worship was accom- 
panied with lascivious dances and other 
obscene practices. This is probably referred to in the twenty-fifth, verse. 

Reference is made to the Egyptian origin of this calf-worship in Ezek. 
xx, 6-8, and in Acts vii, 39, 40. Jeroboam, who afterward set up the two 
golden calves, (I Kings xii, 28,) had lived in Egypt. 1 Kings xii, 2. 

139.— MIRRORS. 
XXXVIII. 8. He made the laver of brass, and the foot of it of 
brass, of the looking-glasses of the women assembling, which 
assembled at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation. 

Ancient mirrors were metallic. The mirrors of the Egyptians were made 
of a mixed metal, chiefly copper, and were admirably polished. They were 
usually small, being in size and in general shape what would now be called 
hand-mirrors. They were wrought with great skill, and the handles, which 
were of wood, stone, or metal, were artistically shaped and highly orna- 
mented. The Egyptian women were in the habit of carrying a mirror in 
one hand when they went to their temples to worship. It may be that the 
Hebrew women imitated this custom when they brought their mirrors to 
" the door of the tabernacle of the congregation." 




25. — Calf Idol. 



i 6 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. 

Dr. Shaw (Travels, p. 24) sa3 T s tliat the Moorish women lie saw made 
their mirrors a part of the ornaments of their costume, hanging them on the 
breast, and wearing them with their other ornaments even when engaged in 
severest drudgery. 

Allusion is made to metallic mirrors in Job xxxvii, 18 ; Isa. hi, 23 ; 2 Cor. 
iii, 18 ; James i, 23. 

1 40.— TALENTS. 

XXXVIII, 24. Twenty and nine talents. 

The gold talent, which is here spoken of, is supposed to have weighed 
1,320,000 grains, or very nearly 230 pounds troy. Its money value is reck- 
oned at £5,475, or over $27,000. The silver talent, mentioned in verse 25, 
was half the weight, that is, 660,000 grains, or almost 115 pounds troy. 
Its value is estimated at £340, or $1,700. Of course there was no coin 
which represented this sum. The word was used to designate large amounts 
of money. See Matt, xxv, 1 5. 

141.— THE JEWISH TABERNACLE. 
XL, 2. On the first day of the first month shalt thou set up 
the tabernaele of the tent of the congregation. 

This was thirty cubits long by ten wide, and was ten cubits in height. 
Exod. xxxvi, 20-30. It was made of boards of shittim or acacia wood, 
every board being ten cubits long, and one cubit and a half wide. Exod. 
xxxvi, 21. The thickness is not mentioned in the Bible, but Josephus says 
that each of these boards was four fingers thick, excepting the two corners 
of the west end, which were each a cubit in thickness. — Ant. of the Jews. Book 
III, chap, vi, § 3. Each board had two tenons at the base, (Exod. xxxvi, 
22,) which fitted into silver mortises. Exod. xxxvi, 24. These mortises in 
turn were fastened to the ground by means of brass pins, (Exod. xxxviii, 20,) 
which, according to Josephus, were each a cubit in length. The boards 
were held together by means of wooden bars covered with gold. Exod. 
xxxvi, 31-34. 

Several kinds of curtains and coverings were made for the. Tabernacle. 
One was of fine linen, the threads being " blue, purple, and scarlet." and on 
the curtains Avere figures of cherubim, either woven or embroidered. Exod. 
xxxvi. 8-13. Another was of goats' hair, spun and woven into cloth. Exod. 
xxxv, 26; xxxvi, 14. Another was of "rams' skins dyed red," and a fourth 
was of the skins of the tacJiash, or " badger," (Exod. xxxvi, 19,) though 
precisely what animal is meant by that name is not known. 

The design and arrangement of these different curtains and coverings are 
a subject of dispute among restorers of the Tabernacle. Some regard them 
as coverings thrown over the tabernacle, the figured curtain being the first, 
and making a beautiful ceiling, the goats' hair next, the dyed rams' skins next; 



Exodus.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



77 



and over all the tachash skins. Others think that the figured curtains not 
only made a ceiling, but also were suspended on the inside, either partially 
or entirely covering the gilded boards. 

Connected with this question is that of the shape of the Tabernacle roof, 
whether flat, like Oriental houses, or peaked and slanting, like Oriental tents. 
Great names might be mentioned on both sides. Fergusson, the celebrated 
English architect, presents a very strong plea in favor of the tent theory in 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, art. " Temple.'' Some very strong arguments 
against his plan of restoration may be found in a recent work by a learned 
Scotch layman. The Tabernacle and its Priests and Services, etc., by Will am 
Brown, Edinburgh, 1871. One of the most original treat's^s on the subject 




-The Tabernacle, according to Paiae. 

is to be found in Solomon's Temple, etc., by the Rev. T. 0. Paine, Boston, 
1861. Mr. Paine adopts the tent-theory, but, as we shall presently see, has 
a method of restoration entirely his own. 

Fergusson supposes that the Tabernacle of gilded boards was entirely 
uncovered within and without, and that above this, and stretching beyond 
it on, either side, so as completely to cover and protect it, were the 
curtains and coverings, in the form of a tent. The beautiful figured curtain 



"8 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Exodus. 



was first thrown over the ridge pole, and was thus visible from the inside 
of the Tabernacle. Over this was the cloth of goats' hair, and over this the 
"rams' skins dyed red." The tachash skins he places along the ridge pole 
as a protection to the joint of the ram-skin covering. 

Mr. Paine supposes that the linen curtains were hung in festoons on the 
insU- o!' the gilded boards, four cubits from the bottom, thus leaving six 
cubits of gilded boards uncovered. Stretched over 
the Tabernacle, in tent form, was a double covering, 
made of goats' hair, spun and woven into cloth of 
a dark brown color. This made the roof of the 
tent, and it came down close to the boarded sides 
of the Tabernacle. Fergussoivs tent, it will -be re- 
membered, stretches some distance beyond Next 
to the gilded planks, on the outside, Paine puts 
the tachash skins, and over these the skins of the 
rams, with the wool on and dyed red. Thus "the 
Tabernacle had red sides and end, and a brown 
roof and gable, nearly black.'' — Sobmon's Temple, 
p. 1 6. He makes the front entirely open above the 
low entrance vail, and also has a small opening in 
the rear, or west end, between the top of the gable 
and the peak of the roof. See engraving on p. 77. 
Nothing is said of the floor of the Tabernacle; 
whether of earth or boards is not known. In front 
were five pillars, over whicli was hung an em- 
broidered curtain for a door. Exod. xxxvi, 37. 38. 
There was also a vail dividing the interior into two 
rooms. This vail was of embroidery and hung on four pillars. Exod. xxxvi, 
35, 36. The precise length of each of these two rooms is not given, though, from 
the analogy between the Tabernacle and the Temple, two thirds of the space 
are supposed to have been given to the first room and the remaining third 
to the second. See 1 Kings vi, 17-20. 

The first room, which was called the Holy Place, (Exod. xxviii, 29,) con- 
tained on one side the table of show-bread, on the other the golden candle- 
stick, (Exod. xxvi, 35,) and, in front of the vail, the golden altar of incense. 
Exod. xxx, 6. Behind the vail was the second room, supposed to have been 
in the form of a perfect cube. It contained the ark, and was called the 
Most Holy Place. Exod. xxvi. 33. 34. 

In this Tabernacle of the Israelites there was a general resemblance to 
the temples of other ancient nations. This resemblance is to be seen, among 
other things, in the secret place where no one was permitted to enter, the 
special shrine of the Deity. 




Tabernacle Curtains. 



Exodus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 79 

The wandering tribes of Asia have tents for their temples. They are 
larger than their dwelling-tents, and of better material and workmanship. 

142.— THE ARK OF THE COVENANT. 
XL, 3. Thou, shalt put therein the ark of the testimony, and. 
cover the ark with the vail. 

This is called elsewhere the " ark of the covenant," (Deut. xxxi, 26,) and 
" the ark of G-od." 1 Sam. iii, 3. It was made of acacia wood, overlaid with 
gold within and without. It was two cubits and a half long, one cubit 
and a half in width, and the same in height. An ornamental cornice, or 
"crown," of gold ran around the top. In each corner of the ark was a gold 
ring, and through the rings two gilded staves were kept for the purpose of 
carrying it when the Tabernacle was removed. Exod. xxv, 10-15. 

In the work by Brown, referred to in the last note, the author expresses 
the opinion that the ark had feet, and that the rings were put into these 
feet in order, by means of the staves, to lift the ark on high when it was 
carried. He contends that peamoth, "corners," in Exod. xxv, 12, should be 
rendered "feet." G-esenius also gives this definition to the word. 

The ark was put into the Most Holy Place. Exod. xxvi, 34. In it were 
placed the two tables of the law, for whose reception it was specially de- 
signed. Exod. xxv, 16. According to Heb. ix, 4, there were in addition to 
these a golden pot of manna and Aaron's rod which budded. Some think, 
however, that this is not in accordance with 1 Kings viii, 9, and that these 
two objects were laid up by the side of the ark. The passage referred to 
does not prove that the manna and the rod were never in the ark, but only 
that they were not there at the time the ark was put into Solomon's Temple ; 
they may have been previously destroyed. It has also been supposed by 
some that a complete copy of the law was placed within the ark. See Deut. 
xxxi, 24-26. Others claim that "in the side " should be "by the side." 

The cover was of solid gold, and was called "the mercy-seat." Exod. 
xxv, 17, 21. Springing from the ends of this cover were two golden cheru- 
bim with outstretched wings. Exod. xxv, 18-20. No particular description 
is given, here or elsewhere, of their size, shape, or general appearance. We 
do not know how to account for this failure to describe them, especially 
as all other articles connected with the Tabernacle are minutely described. 
Whether the form of the cherubim was so generally known as to make de- 
scription unnecessary, or whether the description was purposely concealed, 
as among the secrets of Jehovah, cannot now be known. Erom the account 
given by Ezekiel in chapter i, 4-11, the cherubim seem to have been com- 
posite figures ; but these could not have been in all respects like the cheru- 
bim over the ark, for Ezekiel represents them with four wings, each, two of 
which covered their bodies ; while Moses spaaks of the wings being si retched 



80 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Exodus. 



forth on high, "covering the mercy-seat," thus implying that they had but 
two wings each. More parsicular description is given of the colossal cherubim 
in the Temple of Solomon, which were probably patterned after those of 
the Tabernacle. These are distinctly stated to have had two wings each, 
and to have stood with their wings outstretched, and their faces turned in- 
ward 2 Chron. hi, 10-13. However composite the form, it was doubtless 
more human than anything else; in this respect differing from the winged 
figures of other nations. According to the Jewish tradition the cherubim 
over the mercy-seat had human faces. 

Most of the nations of antiquity had arks, in which they preserved some 
secret things connected with their religion. These arks were likewise com- 
monly surmounted with winged figures, but in spiritual meaning they are not 
worthy of comparison with ttie ark of the Hebrews. Clement of Alexandria, 
speaking of the Egyptians, says: "The innermost sanctuary of their temples 
is overhung with gilded tapestry ; but let the priest remove the covering, 
and there appears a cat, or a crocodile, or a domesticated serpent wrapped in 
purple." How different this from the tables of the law, the Divine covenant! 



143.- THE TABLE OF SHOW-BREAD— THE GOLDEN 

CANDLESTICK. 

XL, 4. Thou. shalt bring in the table, and set in order the 

things that are to be set in order upon, it ; and thou shalt bring 

in the candlestick, and light the lamps thereof. 

1. The " table of show-bread " was on the north side of the Holy Place. 
Exod. xxvi, 35. It was made of acacia wood overlaid with gold, was two 
cubits long, one cubit wide, and a cubit and a half high. It had an orna- 
mental cornice of gold around the top, and was furnished with rings of 
gold and gilded staves. Exod. xxv, 23-28. On it were placed twelve loaves 

of bread in two rows or piles, and on 
each row frankincense was put. The 
bread was changed every Sabbath. Lev. 
xxiv, 5-9. There were also golden vessels 
of various kinds, (Exod. xxv, 29,)pnbably 
for the bread, frankincense, and wine. 

The shape of the table of show-bread 

in Herod's Temple is preserved to us in 

the celebrated triumphal arch erected in 

Rome to commemorate the destruction of 

Jerusalem by Titus. Among the spoils 

28.— Table of Show-Bre^d. of war represented on it are those taken 

from the Temple. These articles probably bore some general resemblance 

to those in Solomon's Temple and in the Tabernacle. 




Ex;aus.j 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



81 




29.— Golden Candlestick. 



2. The " candlestick " consisted of a standard 
with three branches on each side, thus affording 
room for seven lamps, which were supplied with 
olive oil. The candlestick stood on the south side 
of the Holy Place, and with its snuffers and tongs 
was made of gold. Exod. xxv, 31-40. Nothing is 
known of its size, or of the formation of its base, 
or of the exact position of the six branches. 
Whether the tops of these branches were on a level, 
or in the form of an arch ; and whether the 
branches extended in the same plane or in different 
planes is not known. 



144.— THE GOLDEN ALTAR OF INCENSE. 

XL, 5. Thou shalt set the altar of gold for the incense before 
the ark of the testimony. 

This was made of acacia wood covered with gold. It was two cubits 
high, one cubit in length, and 
one in breadth. It had four 
"horns" or projections on the 
four corners at the top, and, 
like the ark and the table of 
show-bread, it had a cornice of 
gold, and rings and staves for 
transportation. The rings were 
of gold, and the staves of acacia 
wood covered with gold. Exod. 
xxxvii, 25-28. Its position was 
in the west end of the Holy 
Place, near the vail which con- 
cealed the Most Holy Place. 
Exod. xl, 26. It was thus im- 
mediately in front of the Ark of 
the Covenant, though separated 
from it by the vail. 




. — Altar of Incense. 



145.— THE GREAT ALTAR OF BURNT-OFFERING. 

XL, 6.. Thou, shalt set the altar of the burnt offering before 
the door of the tabernacle of the tent of the congregation. 

This altar was placed in the court, not far from the entrance to the 
Tabernacle. Exod. xl, 6, 29. It was made of acacia wood, and covered 
with plates of brass. It was five cubits long, five cubits broad, aud three 



82 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Exodus. 



cubits high, and had four horns at the four corners. It had brazen rings, 
and staves covered with brass were provided for moving it. It was hollow, 
and is supposed to have been filled with earth, thus complying with the 
command in Exod. xx, 24. See also Exod. xxxviii, 1-7. 

Around the altar, midway from the bottom, was a projecting ledge on 
which the priest stood while offering sacrifice. This is represented in the 
word karkob, rendered "compass," in Exod. xxvii, 5, and xxxviii, 4; a word 
which Gesenius renders margin or border. It is supposed that an inclined 
plane of earth led to this on one side, probably the south. Thus we may 
see how Aaron could " come down " from the altar. Lev. ix, 22. 

Various views have been entertained in reference to the grating or net- 
work spoken of in Exod. xxvii, 4, 5, and xxxviii, 4. Some place it at the top 
of the altar, supposing that the fire and the sacrifice were put upon it ; but 
if the altar was filled with earth, as we have supposed, there would scarcely 

have been any need 
of a grating for such 
a purpose. Others 
suppose the altar to 
have been only half- 
filled with earth, and 
that this grating was 
placed inside of the 
altar half way to the 
for the pur- 
pose of holding the 
earth. Both these 
theories assume that 
the grating occupitd 
a horizontal position 
Some archasologists, 
however, suppose this 
and to have dropped 
the ground. Thus in 




31.— Altar of St/rot-offering, according to Meter. 

A is the space between the boards, over which the utensils for bottom 
fire and ashes were placed, while within were stones or earth. 

BB is the network grating, with the projecting ledge, as de- 
scribed in Exod. xxvii, 4, 5. 

C is the karkdb, or ledge itself, projecting from the middle of 
the altar. 

D is the incline toward it on one side, for the officiating priest 
to ascend by, formed of earth or stones. 
abed are the horns or corner projections of the altar. 



grating or network to have been perpendicular, 
from the edge of the karkob, or projecting ledge, to 
Exod. xxvii, 5, it is said, " And thou shalt put it [that is. the " grate of net- 
work of brass," verse 4] under the compass [karkob'] of the altar beneath, 
that the net may be even to the midst of the altar." 

Meyer is very decidedly in favor of this view ; indeed we are not sure but 
he ought to be credited with having first suggested it. After speaking of 
the karkob, or ledge, he says: "Under the outer edge of this bench was the 
copper lattice work, which extended from it to the ground on all four sides, 
just as the body of the chest extended from the inner edge of the bench. It 
formed, with the bench or the karkob around, an expanding set-off, by reason 



Exodus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 83 

of which the under half of the altar, on all sides, appeared wider than the 
upper. On the karkob, bench, or passage-way, the priest walked in order 
to attend to the sacrifice, to lay wood upon the altar, or to officiate in other 
ways. . . . The grating served to preserve the base of the altar from the 
sprinkled blood of the sacrifices, (see Exod. xxix, 12; Lev. iv, 7,) and to 
keep away from the sacred altar men and the beasts to be offered in. sac- 
rifice." — Bibeldeutungen, pp. 201-211. 

146.— THE BRAZEN LAVER. 

XL, 7. Thou shalt set the laver between the tent of the con- 
gregation and. the altar, and shalt put water therein. 

This was made out of the " brazen* mirrors " of the women, (Exod. xxxvhi, 
8,) and was used for the ablutions of the priests. Exod. xxx, 17-21. The 
better to accomplish this purpose it was placed between the brazen altar 
and the door of the Tabernacle. Exod. xl, 30-32. No description is given 
of its shape or size, but it is supposed to have been circular. In connection 
with the laver frequent mention is made of what is called its "foot." See 
Exod. xxx. 18, 28; xxxi, 9; xxxv, 16; xxxix, 39; xl, 11; Lev. viii, 11. 
This has led some commentators to believe that the ''foot " was something 
more than a mere pedestal for the support of the laver, and they suppose 
that it may have been a lower basin to catch the water which flowed through 
taps or otherwise from the laver, thus making a convenient arrangement for 
washing the hands and feet of the priests. 

147.— THE OUTER COURT. 

XL, 8. Thou, shalt set up the court round about, and hang up 
the hanging at the court gate. 

This outer court which inclosed the Tabernacle was one hundred cubits 
long and fifty cubits wide. It was surrounded by a canvas wall five cubits 
high. The sides and ends, excepting the entrance, were made of fine linen 
curtains, which were hung on fillets, or, more properly, rods, made of silver. 
These silver rods were supported by pillars of brass, being connected to 
them by hooks of silver. There were twenty pillars on each side and ten 
on each end, all of them fitted into brazen sockets. At the east end of the 
court was the entrance. It occupied three panels, and was twenty cubits 
wide, thus taking up two fifths of the front. The curtains of the gate were 
made of the richest kind of needlework, and were wrought in colors. 
Exod. xxvii, 9-19. The frail walls of the Tabernacle were steadied by cords, 
which were fastened into the ground at suitable distances by means of tent- 
pins. See Exod. xxxv, 18. 

* Copper is probably meant by the original word. See note on Dan. v, 4. 



84 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. 

148.— PRIESTLY GARMENTS. 
XL, 13. Thou shalt put upon Aaron the holy garments. 
We shall first notice the garments which the high priest wore in common 
with the other priests: — 

1. Linen drawers, reaching from the loius to the thighs. Exod. xxviii, 42 
Maimonides (Reasons, etc., p. 267) says, that these were to be worn as an 
evidence that the divine worship sanctioned no such impurities as were 
associated with idolatrous worship, and that this is also the reason for 
the command in Exod. xx, 26. 

2. A tunic, or shirt, of white linen. It was made of one piece, (see note 
on John xix, 23,) had sleeves, and is supposed to have reached to the 
ankles, and to have been of a checker pattern. Exod. xxviii, 39, 40 ; 
xxix. 5. 

3. A girdle. This was wound around the tunic between the waist and 
the shoulders. Josephus says it was four fingers broad, and " so loosely 
woven that you would think il were the skin of a serpent." — Ant., Book III, 
chap. 7, §3. It was embroidered in colors. Exod. xxviii, 39. 

4. Tlie miter, or turban, made of linen, called a bonnet in Exod. xxxix, 28, 
and elsewhere. 

We now notice the articles of dress which were peculiar to the high 
priest: — 

1. The robe. This was woven of blue stuff, in one piece, with an opening 
by which it might be put on over the head. It was worn over the tunic 
but whether it reached to the knees or to the ankles is uncertain. It was 
beautifully ornamented at the bottom with pomegranates in purple and 
scarlet. Little gold bells were hung between these, and made a tinkling 
sound whenever the wearer moved. Exod. xxxix, 22-26. 

2. The ephod. The ordinary priest also wo&e an ephod, (see 1 Sam. xxii, 
18,) but it was different in material and in style from that of the high priest. 
This was made of beautifully colored woven work, variegated with gold 
threads, the art of weaving which was known to the ancient Egyptians, from 
whom the Israelites may have learned it. These threads were made from thin 
plates of gold which were cut into wires. Exod. xxxix, 3. The ephod was in 
two pieces, one for the back and the other for the breast. The two pieces 
were joined by " shoulder pieces," which were a continuation of the front part 
of the ephod. Exod. xxviii, 6, 7 ; xxxix, 4. On the shoulder pieces were two 
precious stones, each having the names of six of the tribes of Israel. These 
stones were placed in gold settings, which some think made clasps for 
fastening the shoulder pieces together. Exod. xxviii, 9-12. The two parts 
of the ephod were fastened around the body by means of a girdle, which was 
really a portion of the front part of the ephod. Exod. xxviii, 8. The 
ephod had no sleeves. 



Exodus.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



3. The breastplate. This was made of the same material as the ephod. 
It was half a cubit wide and a cubit in length, but being doubled, it became 
a half cubit square, and 
formed a pouch or pocket. 
On the front of this were four 
rows of precious stones, three 
in each row, and on them 
were engraved the names of 
the twelve tribes. These 
stones were set in gold. The 
breastplate was fastened to 
the ephod by golden chains. 
Exod. xxviii, 15-29. Con- 
nected with this breastphue 
were the Urim and Tnummim 
— Lights and Perfections — 
but precisely what these were 
no man knows. They were 
used as a means of consulting 
Jehovali in cases of doubt. 
Numb, xxvii, 21; 1 Sam. 
xxviii, 6. How they were 
used cannot now be told. 
Some think that the twelve 
stones were the Urim and 
Thummim. the stones them- 
selves being the Urim. or, 
Lights, and the names of the.=jgg|gj 
tribes engraven on them being 
the Thummim, or Perfections, 

because they represented the 32.— The High -Priest in his Eobes. 

tribes in their tribal integrity. From the fact that the Urim and Thummim 
are said to be in the breastplate, others again think that they were separate 
from the twelve stones and were put into the pocket behind them. Some 
suppose them to have been three precious stones which were placed in this 
pouch of the breastplate to be used for casting lots to decide questions of 
doubt; and that on one of the stones was engraven Yes, on another No, the 
third being without any inscription. The stone drawn out by the high 
priest would indicate the answer: affirmative, negative, or no answer to be 
given. This may have been so, but there is no proof of it. Trench, acting 
on the suggestion of Ziillig, supposes the Urim and Thummim to have been 
a diamond, kept in the pouch of the breastplate, and having the ineffable 




86 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Exodus. 

name of the Deity inscribed on it. He thinks this is the " white stone" 
referred to in Rev. ii, 17. See Trench on the Epistles to the Seven Churches, 
(American Edition.) p. 177. 

4. The diadem. This was a plate of pure gold fastened around the miter 
by blue ribbons, and having engraved on it the words "Holiness to the 
Lord." (See page 84.) 



LEVITICUS. 

149.— FORBIDDEN OFFERINGS. 
II, 11. Ye shall burn no leaven, nor any honey, in any offer- 
ing of the Lord made by fire. 

Maimonides assigns as a reason for this law that it was " the practice of 
the idolaters to offer only leavened bread, and to choose sweet things for 
their oblations, and to anoint or besmear them with honey." — Reasons, etc., 
p. 275. 

150.— USE OF SALT. 

II, 13. Every oblation of thy meat offering shalt thou season 
with salt; neither shalt thou suffer the salt of the covenant of 
thy God to be lacking from thy meat offering : with all thine 
offerings thou shalt offer salt. 

The reason for this law, according to Maimonides. was found in the fact 
that the heathen never offered salt in sacrifices. If this were the case in the 
time of Moses, their custom must have changed subsequently, since there is 
abundant evidence of this use of salt among heathen of a later day. Some 
suppose that they imitated in this the Jewish sacrifices. 

The partaking of salt by different persons together is regarded among the 
Arabs as a pledge of friendship. It is equivalent to a most solemn covenant. 
Numerous instances are recorded by travelers illustrative of this. So deeply 
rooted is this sentiment, that intended robbery has been abandoned when the 
robber has accidentally eaten salt while getting his plunder. Travelers have 
sometimes secured their safety in the midst of wild Bedawin by using 
stratagem in getting the Arabs to eat salt with them. Macgregor tells 
how he thus outwitted a sheikh who had made him a prisoner, and 
whose disposition seemed to be unfriendly. <; We had now eaten salt to- 
gether, and in his own tent, and so he Was bound by the strongest tie, and 
he knew it." — The Bob Roy on the Jordan, p. 260. 

By thus Using salt in their sacrifices the people were bound to Jehovah 
in most solemn covenant. Hence we read of the "covenant of salt." Num. 
xviii, 19- 2 Chron. xiii, 5. 



Leviticus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 87 



151.— THE BURNT-OFFERING. 

VI, 9. This is the law of the burnt-offering : It is the burnt- 
offering, because of the burning upon the altar all night unto 
the morning, and. the fire of the altar shall be burning in it. 

The different victims for the burnt-offering were bullocks, sheep, goats, 
turtle doves, and young pigeons. The person making this voluntary offering, 
when he offered a bullock, put his hand on the victim's head, and then slew 
the animal. The priests took the blood and sprinkled it all around the great 
altar. In Solomon's Temple there was a red line half way up the sides of 
the great altar; some of the blood was sprinkled above and some below 
this line. See Lightfoot, Works, {Ed. Pitman,) ix, 75. After the blood was 
sprinkled the persou offering flayed the animal and cut him in pieces. 
In after times the priests and Levites sometimes did this. 2 Chron. 
xxix, 34. The entire offering was then burnt by the priests. If the offering 
consisted of a goat, a sheep, or fowls, the ceremony was slightly changed. 

The burnt-offering was the only offering that was entirely burnt. Thus 
it is sometimes called the "whole" burnt-offering. Deut. xxxiii, 10; Psa. 
li, 19. The burning was to be so gradual that it should last from morning 
to evening, or from one daily sacrifice to the next. It was commanded that 
the fire on the altar should never go out. 

The burnt-offering is described in detail in Lev. i, 1-17 ; vi, 8-13. 

The design of the burnt-offering is not clearly stated in the Bible, and 
learned Jews differ in reference to it ; some affirming that it was for evil 
thoughts, others that it was for a violation of affirmative precepts. Many 
Christian divines regard it as a symbol of entire and perpetual consecration to 
God ;• self-dedication, following upon and growing out of pardon and accept- 
ance with God. See Fairbairn's Typology, vol. ii, p. 316. 

152.— THE MEAT-OFFERING. 
VI, 14. This is the law of the meat-offering. 

The meat-offering was wholly vegetable in its nature, and was sometimes 
presented in a raw state and sometimes baked. Specific directions were 
given concerning the ceremonies to be observed in either case. A portion 
only was consumed in the fire, and the rest was given to the priest. Neither 
leaven nor honey was allowed to be mixed with it. It usually accompanied and 
was subsidiary to the sin and burnt offerings, and the quantity offered was 
graduated according to the victim presented as a burnt-offering. Num. xv, 
4, 5, 6, 9. 

It is supposed that oil was used to give the meat-offering a grateful 
relish ; and frankincense to make a sweet odor in the court of the Taber- 
nacle. Paul alludes to the fragrant meat-offering in Phil, iv, 18. The 



o8 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Leviticus. 

heathen used oil in their sacriSces. not mixed with flour, but poured over 
the burnt-offerings, to make the burning better. They likewise made free 
use of frankincense in their sacrifices. Full directions concerning the meat- 
offering are given in Lev. ii, 1-1 6 ; vi, 14-23. 

153.— THE SIN-OFFERING. 

VI, 25. This is the law of the sin-offering. 

There were two kinds of sin-offering: one for the whole congregation 
and the other for individuals. For the first kind a young bullock was 
brought into the outer court of the Tabernacle, where the elders laid tlieir 
hands upon his head and he was killed. The high priest then took the 
blood into the Holy Place and sprinkled it seven times before the vail, put- 
ting some on the horns of the golden altar of incense. The remainder of 
the blood was then poured out at the foot of the altar of burnt-offering. The 
fat of the animal was burnt upon the altar, and the rest of the body was 
taken without the camp and burnt. Lev. iv, 13-21. 

Of the second kind of sin-offering there were three varieties. The first 
was for the high priest. The ceremonies only slightly varied from those just 
described. Lev. iv, 3-12. The second was for any of the rulers of the 
people. A kid was killed instead of a bullock. The priest did not enter the 
Holy Place, but merely put some of the blood on the horns of the altar of 
burnt-offering, and poured the rest out by the foot of the altar. The fat was 
burned upon the altar. Lev. iv, 22-26. The third was for any of the com- 
mon people. A female kid or lamb was brought and treated as in the case 
just described. Lev. iv, 27-35. If poverty prevented the procuring of kid 
or lamb, two turtle doves or two young pigeons could be substituted ; and 
for the very poorest a small offering of fine flour. Lev. v, 7-13. 

What was left of the sin-offering for one of the rulers or for one of the 
common people was not burned without the camp, as in the two other 
instances, but was eaten by the priests and their sons. It was considered 
peculiarly holy, and special directions were given concerning the vessels in 
which it was cooked. Lev. vi, 24-30. The sin-offering was offered for 
sins of ignorance against negative precepts. Lev. iv, 2, 13, 22, 27. 

154.— THE TRESPASS-OFFERING. 

VII, 1. This is the law of the trespass- offering. 

The trespass-offering was similar to the sin-offering; yet- there were several 
important points of distinction. In the trespass-offering rams were offered, 
aud the blood was sprinkled around the altar of burnt-offering. Lev. v, 18; 
vii, 2. The priest was required to make a special valuation of the ram 
offered. Lev. v, 15, 16. 

The trespass-offering was offered in cases of trespass committed in holy 



Leviticus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 89 

things: dishonesty or falsehood in a trust; robbery joined with deceit; dis- 
honesty and falsehood in reference to things found. Lev. v, 15-vi, 7. 

155.— OVEN— FRYING-PAN— PAN. 
VII, 9. All the meat-offering that is baken in the oven, and 
all that is dressed in the frying-pan, and in the pan, shall be 
the priest's that offereth it. 

1. One form of oven common in the East consists of a hole dug in the 
ground four or five feet deep and three feet in diameter, and well plastered. 
When the oven is thoroughly heated ^smss 

the dough is rolled out no thicker -^^^lllllifcsi&v 

than a finger, and is stuck against KgS JBJllllllB lf) 

the sides of the oven, where it is J^^fe^^^^^^^v 

instantly baked. Another oven is «fiPi^ ^SEHa 

made of a great stone pitcher, in the -jfiglF' &m. ^^li 

bottom of which a fire is made among j^^ffllr |9n ' ^ 

small flints which retain the heat. ^SHlp^ =y*ma . /J?5. 

On these the dough is placed and is i|||H^r: f> --JMKbL^^ 

soon baked. Sometimes it is rolled ^Si^ j |g |^--. v ^^^-BfeSj^- 
out very thin, and is stuck on the ^J^^^^^^*^^' 7 

outside of the heated pitcher, whence ^^^^fsSsll^SE^sszrar**^ 3 ^^"^ 
it instantly falls, baked through. It 33.-Aeab Oven. 

is thought by some that reference is made to this pitcher-oven in Lev. ii, 4, 
and that the "unleavened cakes of fine flour mixed with oil" were to be 
baked inside the pitcher, and the "unleavened wafers anointed with oil" 
were to be baked on the outside ; the " cakes " being mixed with oil, while 
the "wafers," rolled out thinner, were only smeared with it. 

2. The " frying-pan " (marchesheth) was a deep vessel of iron used for 
boiling meat, and which could also be used for baking bread. 

3. The " pan " was a thin flat plate of iron on which bread could be quickly 
baked as on our griddles. This is the utensil referred to in Ezek. iv, 3. 

156.— THE PEACE-OFFERING. 

VII, 11. This is the law of the sacrifice of peace-offerings. 

Peace-offerings were of three kinds: 1. Thank-offerings; 2. Free-will 
offerings; 3. Offerings for vows. Lev. vii, 12, 16. The peace-offering might 
be either of the herd or of the flock, and either male or female. Lev. iii, 
1, 7, 12. The offerings were accompanied by the imposition of hands, and 
by the sprinkling of blood around the great altar, on which the fat and the 
parts accompanying were burnt. Lev. iii, 1-5. When offered for a thanksgiving 
a meat-offering was presented with it. Lev. vii, 12, 13. A peculiarity of the 
peace-offering was, that the breast was waved and the shoulder heaved. Lev. 
vii, 34. According to Jewish tradition this ceremony was performed by lay- 



90 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Leviticus. 

ing the parts on the hands of the offerer, the priest putting his hands again 
underneath, and then moving them in a horizontal direction for the waving, 
and in a vertical direction for the heaving. This is supposed to have been 
intended as a presentation of the parts to God as the supreme Ruler in 
heaven and on earth. The " wave -breast " and the "heave-shoulder" were 
the perquisites of the priests. Lev. vii, 31-34. The remainder of the victim, 
excepting what was burnt, was consumed by the offerer and his family, un- 
der certain restrictions. Lev. vii, 19-21. It has been suggested that this 
ceremony of eating the peace-offerings by the offerer and his family may 
have given rise to the custom among the heathen of eating flesh offered to 
idols in an idol temple. 1 Cor. viii, 10. See Brown's Antiq. Jevjs, i, 376. 

157.— EARTHENWARE UNCLEAN. 

XI, 33. Every earthen vessel, -whereinto any of them [that is 
the weasel, the mouse, etc., named in verses 29, 30,] falleth, whatsoever is in it 
shall be unclean ; and. ye shall break it. 

This is an illustration of the great attention paid by the Jews to ceremo- 
nial purity. Earthenware, being porous, was capable of absorbing any un- 
cleanness, and hence mere washing or scouring was not sufficient to purify 
it: it must be destroyed. For a reason precisely opposite to this, earthen 
vessels used in connection with the sin-offering were destroyed, lest after- 
ward any unclean thing should be put into them. See Lev. vi, 28. 

158.— RANGES. 

XI, 35. Whether it be oven, or ranges for pots, they shall 
be broken down. 

Some think that instead of " ranges for pots," we should read " pots with 
lids." Others refer the words to some arrangement by which two or more 
cooking vessels could be used at once, thus economizing fuel. Rauwolff 
(cited by Harmer, Obs., i, 465) describes an apparatus he saw among the 
Arabs which may have been similar to the "ranges" spoken of here. A 
hole was dug in the ground about a foot and a half deep, into which the 
earthen pipkins were put filled with meat and with covers on. Stones were 
piled around the pots on three sides of the little pit, and on the fourth side 
the Arabs threw the fuel. In a short time the heat was intense, and the 
meat cooked. The expression "broken down," in the text, may refer to the 
taking apart of the rude structure. 

159.— MORTAR. 
XIV, 42. He shall take other mortar, and shall plaster the house. 
There were several kinds of mortar used by the Hebrews. Sometimes 
they used common mud and clay, mixed with straw chopped and beaten 
small. This may have been the kind especially referred to in the text. 
Aphar, "mortar," is fre piently rendered "dust," and indeed is so translated 



Leviticus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 91 

in the verse preceding, where reference is made to the coating of old mortar 
which was scraped from the outside of the house. They also had several 
varieties of calcareous earth, any of which, mixed with ashes, made a good 
mortar. They likewise prepared an excellent cement of one part sand, two 
parts ashes, and three parts lime. These ingredients were well pounded, and 
were sometimes mixed with oil, while at other times the oil was put on as 
an outer coating. 

Mortar was usually mixed by being trodden with the feet, but wheels were 
sometimes used. 

160.— THE VICTIM'S HEAD. 

XYI, 21. Both his hands upon the head, of the live goat. 

It was customary among the Egyptians for the person offering sacrifice 
to wisli that all evil might be kept from him and fall on the head of his vic- 
tim. For this reason the Egyptians would not eat the head of any animal, 
but sold it to the Greeks or else threw it into the river. 

161.— THE GREAT DAY OF ATONEMENT. 

XYI, 34 This shall be an everlasting statute unto you, to make 
an atonement for the children of Israel for all their sins onee 
a year. 

The Great Day of Atonement took place on the tenth day of the seventh 
month, Tisri, corresponding to our October. It was a day of great solemnity, 
especially designated and kept as a fast day, (see Lev. xxiii, 27 ; Num. 
xxix, 7 ; comp. Psa. xxxv, 13 ; Isa. lviii, 5,) and in later times was known by 
the name of The Fast. Acts xxvii, 9. On this day the high priest, clad in 
plain white linen garments, brought for himself a young bullock for a sin- 
offering and a ram for a burnt-offering ; and for the people two young goats 
for a sin-offering, and a ram for a burnt-offering. The two goats were 
brought before the door of the Tabernacle, and by the casting of lots one was 
designated for sacrifice and the other for a scape-goat. The high priest then 
slaughtered the bullock and made a sin-offering for himself and family. He 
next entered the Most Holy Place for the first time, bearing a censer with 
burning coals, with which he filled the place with incense. Taking the blood 
of the slain bullock, he entered the Most Holy Place the second time, and 
there sprinkled the blood before the mercy-seat. He next killed the goat 
which was for the people's sin-offering, and, entering the Most Holy Place the 
third time, sprinkled its blood as he had sprinkled that of the bullock. Some 
of the blood of the two animals was then put on the horns of the altar of 
incense, and sprinkled on the altar itself. After this the high priest, putting 
his hands on the head of the scape-goat, confessed the sins of the people, and 
then sent him off into the wilderness. He then washed himself, and changed 
his garments, arraying himself in the beautiful robes of his high office, a d 
offe ed the two ranis as burnt-offerings for himself and for the people. Lev. xvi. 



92 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Leviticus. 

162.— GOAT-WORSHIP. 

XYII, T. They shall no more offer their sacrifices unto devils. 

Seirim. here and in 2 Cbron. xi, 15 rendered "devils," is derived from 
a word signifying hairy, shaggy, roughs from which it is used to designate 
he-goats. The Egyptians worshiped the goat under the name of Mendes, by 
which name a province in Egypt was called. The goat was worshiped as a 
personification of the fructifying power of nature, and was reckoned among 
the eight principal gods of Egypt. A splendid temple was dedicated to 
Mendes, and statues of the god were erected in many places. The Israelites 
doubtless learned the worship of the Seirim among the Egyptians. It was 
accompanied with the vilest acts of bestiality. 

163.— MOLECH. 

XVIII, 21. Thou shalt not let any of thy seed pass through the 
fire to Moleeh. 

Molech (sometimes written Moloch) was an old Canaanitish idol, into 
whose worship the Israelites gradually became drawn. Similar rites 
were performed among other nations, probably varying at different times 
and in different places. The usual description given of this god is that of a 
hollow image made of brass, and having a human body with the head of an 
ox. The idol sat on a brazen throne with hands extended. In sacrificing 
to it the image was heated to redness by a fire built within. The parents 
then placed their children in the healed arms, while the noise of drums and 
cymbals drowned the cries of the little sufferers. It is also said that there 
were seven chapels connected with the idol, which were to be entered ac- 
cording to the relative value of the offering presented ; only those who 
offered children being allowed to enter the seventh. Miniatures of these are 
supposed to be the "tabernacle" referred to in Amos v, 26; Acts vii, 43. 
Others think the " tabernacle " was a shrine or ark in which the god was 
carried in procession. 

Some eminent writers deny that the description above given refers to 
"the Molech of the Old Testament. The Bible itself gives no account of the 
idol save that children were made to "pass through the fire" to it. A 
diversity of opinion prevails as to the meaning of this expression. Most 
Jewish writers claim that it does not imply the actual sacrificing or burning 
of the children, but merely an idolatrous ceremonial purification; a fire bap- 
tism, which was accomplished by carrying the children between fires, or 
leaping over fires with them, or causing them to do the same. However 
this may have been in earlier times, it is certain that the service of M< leeh 



Leviticus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 93 

implied more than this at some periods of Jewish history. In the days of 
Ezekiel God's testimony was, '' Thou hast slain my children, and delivered 
them to cause them to pass through the fire for them." Ezek. xvi, 21. Here 
passing through the fire is evidently synonymous with death. See also 
2 Chron. xxviii, 3; Psa. cvi, 37, 38; Jer. vii, 31. 

Frequent reference is made in the Scriptures to this heathen abomination. 
See 2 Kings xvi, 3; xvii, 17; xxi, 6 ; xxiii, 10; Jer. xxxii, 35 ; Ezek. xx, 31. 
The crime was threatened with the severest punishment. Lev. xx, 1-5. 

Human sacrifices were anciently known to the Phenicians, Egyptians, Car- 
thaginians, and other nations. 

Some writers have sought to identify the worship of Molech with that of 
Baal. Others suppose that, according to the well-known astrological char- 
acter of the Phenician and Syrian religions, Molech was the planet Saturn. 
Winer says : " The dearest ones might well be sacrificed to a star so dreaded 
as Saturn, in order to appease it, especially by nations who were by no 
means strangers to human sacrifices," — Biblisch. Eealw., s. v. Molech. 

164.— FRUIT OF YOUNG TREES FORBIDDEN. 

XIX, 23. "Ye shall ecmnt the fruit thereof as uneireumeised : 
three years shall it be as uneireumeised unto you : it shall not 
be eaten of. 

The fruit of young trees was not to be eaten until the fourth year after be- 
ing planted, because of certain heathen superstitions. Maimonides says 
that the idolaters believed that un'ess the first-fruits of every tree were used 
in connection with certain idolatrous ceremonies the tree would suffer some 
great harm, and perhaps die. They further made use of magical rites for 
the purpose of hasteuing the bearing of fruit. The law in the text was 
aimed at this folly, for as no fruit could be touched until the fourth year, the 
Hebrews could not offer the first of the fruit as the idolaters did ; nor would 
it be of any use to seek, by incantations and sprinklings, to hasten the com- 
ing of the fruit, since they could not eat it before the time designated, and 
long before that it would come naturally. 

165.— IDOLATROUS USE OF HAIR. 

XIX, 2T. Ye shall not round, the corners of your heads, nei- 
ther shalt thou mar the corners of thy beard. 

Among the ancients the hair was often used in divination. The worship- 
ers of the stars and planets cut their hair evenly around, trimming the ex- 
tremities. According to Herodotus the Arabs were accustomed to shave 
the hair around the head, and let a tuft stand up on the crown in honor of 
Bacchus. He says the same thing concerning the Marians, a people of 



94 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Leviticus. 

Northern Africa. This custom is at present common in India and China. 
The Chinese let the tuft grow until it is long enough to be plaited into a 
tail. 

By the idolaters the beard was also carefully trimmed round and even. 
This was forbidden to the Jews. Dr. Robinson says, that to this day the 
Jews in the East are distinguished in this respect from the Mohammedans; 
the latter trimming their beard, the former allowing the extremities to grow 
naturally. 

It was also an ancient superstitious custom to cut off the hair at the death 
of friends and throw it into the sepulcher on the corpse. It was sometimes 
laid on the face and breast of the deceased as an offeriug to the infernal gods. 
From the verse following it would seem that this custom, as well as the 
other, may be referred to in the text. 

The express'on '-utmost corners " in Jer. ix. 26; xxv, 23; xlix, 32 refers 
not to any dwelling-place, but to the custom forbidden in Leviticus; and 
accordingly the margin reads, " cut off into corners, or having the corners 
[of their hair] polled." 

166.— MEMORIAL CUTTINGS— TATTOOING. 

XIX, 28. Ye shall not make any cuttings in your flesh for the 
dead, nor print any marks upon you. 

1. The custom of scratching the arms, hands, and face as tokens of 
mourning for the dead is said to have existed among the Babylonians, 
Armenians, Scythians, and Romans, and is practiced by the Arabs, Persians, 
and Abyssinians of the present day, and also by the New Zealanders. It 
was sometimes accompanied by shaving the hair from the forehead. See 
Lev. xxi, 5; Deut. xiv, 1; Jer. xvi, 6; xlviii, 37. Some suppose that refer- 
ence is made in Zech. xiii, 6, to this custom of cutting the hands as a token 
of mourning. 

2. The Orientals are very fond of tattooing. Figures of birds, trees, 
flowers, temples, and gods are carefully and painfully marked in their flesh 
with colors by the puncturing of sharp needles. This is still done in India 
for idolatrous purposes, and, in the time of Moses, probably had some con- 
nection with idolatry. Others do it for eccentric desire of adornment, as we 
sometimes find our own sailors printing their names and making representa- 
tions of s-hips, anchors, and other objects on their arms by means of needles 
and india-ink, the latter mingling with the blood drawn by the needles, and 
leaving an indelible mark of a light blue. See note on Isa. xlix, 1 6, and also 
on Oal. vi, 17. 

16?.— THE HIN. 
XIX, 36. A just hin. 
The hin was a liquid measure containing about ten pints. 



Leviticus-] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 95 



168.— FORBIDDEN FOOD. 

XXII, S. That which dieth of itself, or is torn with beasts, he 
shall not eat to defile himself therewith. 

1. It might not be necessary among us to forbid the eating of animals 
which have died of disease, but in the East the lower classes will eat such 
food. Tavernier noticed that in Ispahan dead horses, camels, and mules 
were bought by people who made hashes of the meat, which they sold to 
the poor day -laborers. 

2. The ancient Greeks prohibited the eating of the flesh of animals which 
had been torn by wild beasts. The Mohammedans have a similar rule. Some 
commentators suppose this prohibition to be grounded on the fact that the 
animals thus torn may have been killed by wolves, dogs, or foxes which 
were mad, and the flesh in this way rendered unwholesome. 

The text is specially addressed to the priests ; so also is Ezek. xliv, 31. 
A similar commandj directed to the people at large, is found in Exod. 
xxii, 31, and Lev. xvii, 15. 

169.— DRINK-OFFERINGS. 

XXIII, 18. They shall be for a burnt-offering unto the Lord 
with their meat-offering, and their drink-offerings. 

Accompanying other offerings was the drink-offering, which consisted of a 
certain quantity of wine, proportioned to the nature of the sacrifice. This 
was taken by the priest, and poured out like the blood at the foot of the altar 
of burnt-offering. For a bullock, half a hin (five pints) of wine was used ; 
for a ram, a third of a hiu ; and for a lamb or kid, a fourth of a hin. 
See Num. xv, 4-12. In the temple service the pouring out of the wine of 
the drink-offering at the morning and evening sacrifice was the signal for 
the priests and Levites to begin their song of praise to God. 

170.— THE FEAST OF TRUMPETS. 

XXIII, 24. In the seventh month, in the first day of the month, 
shall ye have a sabbath, a memorial of blowing of trumpets, 
a holy convocation. 

This festival, commonly called the " Feast of Trumpets," is universally re- 
garded by the Jews as the Festival of the New Year, which began with the 
seventh month, Tisri. As it occurred at the new moon, and on the first day 
of the month in which the Great Day of Atonement and the Feast of 
Tabernacles took place, it was an occasion of great interest. It has ever 
been observed by the Jews as connected with the Day of Atonement, and the 
ten days between the two are considered days of preparation for the soiemn 
day. The silver trumpets, which were ordered to be prepared for the pur- 
pose of calling the people together, (Num. x, 1-10,) were blown on this day 



96 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Leviticus. 

more than at other times, because the new year and the new month began 
together. Hence the name by which the feast is commonly called. 

The day was kept as a Sabbath, no work being performed. The usual 
daily morning sacrifice was offered, then the monthly sacrifice of the new 
moon, and then the sacrifice peculiar to the day, which consisted of a 
bullock, a ram, and seven lambs for a burnt-offering, and a kid for a sin- 
offering. Num. xxix, 1-6. 

171.— THE SABBATICAL YEAR. 

XXV, 4. The seventh, year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the 
land, a sabbath for the Lord: thou, shalt neither sow thy field, 
nor prune thy vineyard. 

Every seventh year was to be a time of recuperation to the soil. The 
spontaneous produce of this Sabbatical Tear was free to all comers, but 
especially to the poor. Exod. xxiii, 11 ; Lev. xxv, 6. It was also a time 
for the debtor to be released by his creditor. Dent, xv, 1. 2. During the 
Feast of Tabernacles of this year the law was publicly read to the people. 
Deut. xxxi, 10-13. 

172.— THE YEAR OF JUBILEE. 

XXV, 10. Ye shall hallow the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty 
throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof: it 
shall be a jubilee unto you. 

The Year of Jubilee was ushered in by the sound of trumpets through the 
land, every fiftieth year, on the Great Day of Atonement. Like the Sab- 
batical Year, it was a year of rest to the soil. Lev. xxv, 11. Thus two 
idle years came together every fifty years, and G-od promised by special 
providence to give such a plentiful harvest during the sixth year that there 
should be enough until the harvest of the ninth year could be gathered. 
Lev. xxv, 20-22. See also 2 Kings xix, 29 ; Isa. xxxvii, 30. A similar 
providence no doubt watched over the productions of the season before the 
Sabbatical Year, in addition to the spontaneous growth of that year. All 
their transfers of real estate were made in reference to the Year of 
Jubilee, and the poor and unfortunate were specially favored. Lev. xxv. 

173.— STONE IDOLS. 

XXVI, 1. Neither shall ye set up any image of stone in your 
land, to bow down unto it: for I am the Lord your God. 

Maskith, here rendered "image," is in Num. xxxiii, 52, (where the word is 
in the plural) translated "pictures." Some writers suppose that eben mas- 
kith, "figure stone," is a stone formed into a figure; that is, an idol of stone 
in distinction to one made of iron or of wood. See Keil, Com. in loco. 



Leviticus.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 97 

Others, however, regard it as referring to stones with figures or hierogh'phic 
inscriptions on them; "pictured" or "engraven stones," which in that age 
of idolatry were liable to be worsh'ped. 

174.— HIGH PLACES— SUN-IMAGES. 

XXVI, 30. I will destroy your high, places, and cut down your 
images. 

1. Frequent mention is made in the Scriptures of the "high places" of 
the heathen, where they were accustomed to worship their gods, supposing 
themselves there to be nearer to them, and more likely to be heard by them. 
This practice was imitated by the Hebrews, though denounced in their laws. 
They sometimes worshiped on their house-tops as a substitute for hills or 
mountains. See Jer. xix, 13 ; xxxii, 29 ; Zeph. i, 5. 

2. The "images" (chammanim) here spoken of are called "sun images" 
in the margin, in several places where the word is used. They are supposed 
to have been identical with the sun-god Baal. From 2 Chron. xxxiv, 4, it 
would seem that they were sometimes placed on top of the altars of 
Baal, from which it is thought that they may have resembled rising flames. 
In some places where their destruction is spoken of they are represented as 
being "cut down," (Ezek. vi, 4,) and in other places they are said to be 
" broken." Ezek. vi, 6. Thus they may sometimes have been made of 
wood, and sometimes of stone. Perhaps' they were made of stone when 
placed as a fixture on the altar, and of wood when put in other positions. 

1 75.— SHEKEL— GERAH. 

XXVII, 25. All thy estimations shall be according to the shekel 
of the sanctuary : twenty gerahs shall be the shekel. 

1. What the "shekel of the sanctuary" was is not definitely stated. 
There are those who think it was worth double the value of the ordinary 
shekel. Others, again, suppose that "the shekel of the sanctuary" was the 
standard to which ah shekels must conform if of full weight. See note on 
Gren. xxiii, 16. 

2. The gerah was the smallest weight known to the Hebrews, and the 
smallest piece of money used by them. It weighed between eleven and 
twelve grains, and was in value about three cents. 

176.— THE TITHING ROD. 

XXVII, 82. Whatsoever passeth under the rod. 

The reference here is to the Jewish mode of tithing theep. As the sheep 
passed through a narrow gate, one by one, the person counting stood by, 
holding in his hand a rod colored with ochre. Every tenth one he touched 
with his rod, thus putting a mark upon it. Jeremiah alludes to this method 
of counting sheep in cliap. xxxiii, 13. So also does Ezekiel, in chap, xx, 37. 



98 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Numbers. 





NUMBERS. 

177.— STANDARDS. 
II, 2. Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his 
own standard, with the ensign of their father's house. 

The degel, " standard," was the large field sign which belonged to each divis- 
ion of three tribes, and was also the banner of the tribe at the head of that 
division. The oth, " ensign," was the small flag or banner which was carried 

at the head of each tribe and of each 
subdivision of a tribe. The Bible 
gives us no intimation of the form of 
these different signals. They proba- 
bly bore some general resemblance to 
'' X '*H* Pr tlie Egyptian military signals, repre- 
TxJ/ II sentations of which are to be found 

on the monuments. These were not 
_^A" at all like our modern flags or ban- 

t^%w ners. They were made of wood or 
^J j\ metal, and ornamented with various 
devices, and shaped in the form of 
seme sacred emblem. Some illustra- 
tion of the mode of using these sig- 
nals may perhaps be obtained from 
the account which Pitts gives of the 
signals which are carried on the top of high poles in an Arabian caravan, 
not only by day, but also at night, at which time they are illuminated. 
"They are somewhat like iron stoves, into which they put short dry wood, 
which some of the camels are loaded with; it is carried in great sacks, 
which have a hole near the bottom, where the servants take it out as they 
see the fires need a recruit. Every cottor [i e.. company] hath one of these 
poles belonging to it, some of which have ten, some twelve, of these lights 
on their tops, more or less. They are likewise of different figures as well 
as numbers ; one, perhaps, oval way. like a gate ; another triangular, or like 
an N or an M, etc. ; so "that every one knows by them his respective cottor. ." 
— Religion and Manners of the Mahometans, p. 43. 



1 



34— Egyptian Standards 



178.— THE LEVITES. 
Ill, 6. Bring the tribe of Levi near, and present them before 
Aaron the priest, that they may minister unto him. 

The family of Aaron were set apart especially to the duties of the priest. 
hood. The rest of the tribe of Levi were consecrated to special services in 



Numbers ] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



99 



connection with the worship of Jehovah. Each of the three families had 
its particular duties assigned. The Kohathites had charge of the sacred 
utensils of the Tabernacle. They saw that they were properly removed 
when on the march, and that they were put into their appropriate places 
when the encampment was again fixed. Num. iv, 4-15. The Gershonites 
took care of the hangings and curtains of the Tabernacle. Num. iv, 21-28. 
The Merarites were required to look after the boards, sockets, pillars, pins, 
and cords of the Tabernacle. Num. iv, 29-33. Moses also gave the Levites 
judicial authority, (Deut. xvii, 8-12,) and made them keepers of the book of 
the law. Deut. xxxi, 9, 25, 26. After the temple was built they acted as 
porters, musicians, and assistants to the priests. 

The first Levites who were appointed began their service at thirty years 
of age, (Num. iv, 23, 30, 35 ;) but it was ordered that after that the age 
for commencing should be twenty-five years. Num. viii, 24. In David's time 
they began serving at twenty. 1 Chron. xxiii, 24-27. They were released 
from all obligation to serve when they became fifty years old. Num. viii, 25. 

Forty-eight cities were set apart for their residence in the Land of Prom- 
ise. Six of these were also cities of refuge, and thirteen of them they shared 
with the priests. Num. xxxv, 1-8; Josh, xxi, 13-19; 1 Chron. vi, 54-60. 

179.— FULLNESS OF FOOD. 

XI, 20. Until it come out at your nostrils. 

Roberts says, that this figure of speech is used in India to convey the idea 
of being filled to satiety. A host says to his guests, "Now, friends, eat 
mookamattam : to the nose. That is, Eat until you are filled to the nose. 
Of a glutton it is said, "That fellow always fills up to the nose." 



1§0.— THE STAFF OF INHERITANCE. 

XVII, 2. Take of every one of them a rod, according to the 
house of their fathers. 

In the pictures on the walls of the ancient 
Egyptian tombs the chief person is always rep- 
resented with a long staff — the mark of his rank 
as a land owner, and as the head of his family. 
In the Abbott Collection there are fragments of 
two of these rods with hieroglyphic inscriptions. 

In the engraving this staff is seen in the left 
hand. The stick in the right hand is supposed 
to be a scepter. Sharpe represents this man as 
"an Egyptian of the reign of Amunmai Thori 
II., who lived at least two centuries before the 
time of Moses." — Bible Texts, etc., p. 46. 35.— Staff of Inheritance 




100 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Numbers. 



181.— SACRIFICE OF THE RED HEIFER. 

XIX, 2. Speak unto the children of Israel, that they bring thee 
a red. heifer without spot, wherein is no blemish, and. upon 
which never came yoke. 

The sacrifice of the red heifer was a peculiar ceremony designed to 
purify from the ceremonial defilement resulting from contact with a corpse. 
Num. xix, 11-16. A heifer perfectly red, and which had never borne the 
yoke, was selected by the people, and brought to Eleazar the priest. She 
was then taken outside the camp and slaughtered. Eleazar sprinkled her 
blood seven times before the Tabernacle, afer which the entire carcass was 
burnt, the priest throwing into the fire cedar, and hyssop, and scarlet. The 
ashes were then carefully collected and laid up in a suitable place for future 
use. Num. xix, 1-10. When purification from the defilement of a corpse 
became necessary, the ashes were made into a lye by means of running 
water, and the water was sprinkled from a bunch of hyssop on the person, 
the tent, the bed, or the utensils which had been defiled. Num. xix, 17-19. 

This sacrifice differed from all others in several important particulars. The 
victim was not slaughtered in the court, nor was it burnt on the altar; it 
was killed and burnt outside the camp. Neither the high priest nor any 
ordinary priest officiated, but the presumptive s-uccessor of the high priest. 
The animal chosen was not a bullock, as in other sacrifices, but a heifer, and 
the precise color was specified. The ashes were carefully preserved. 

Much has been written on these subjects, and various attempts have been 
made to give full explanations of all the minutiae of the ceremonies, bnt 
some things connected with them are not easily explained. The Jews are 
represented as saying, that Solomon himself, with all his wisdom, did not 
fully understand them. 

The general design, doubtless, was to keep in remembcrance the awful fact 
of sin, which brought death into the world, and the necessity of purification 
from its pollution. Paul makes reference to this in Heb. ix, 13, 14. As 
Kurtz remarks, " This idea of an antidote against the defilement of death 
was the regulating principle of the whole institution, determining not only 
the choice of the sacrificial animal, but what should be added to it, and all 
that should be done with it." — Sacrificial Worship of the Old Testament, 
p. 426. 

182— PROPHETS' MANTLES. 

XX, 28. Moses stripped Aaron of his garments, and put them 
upon Eleazar his son. 

This was the formal initiation of Eleazar into the sacred oflrce. We find, 
also, that Elijah threw his mantle over Elisha, when, in obedience to divine 



Numbers.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 101 

command, he called him to the prophet's work. 1 Kings xix, 19. This 
mantle Elisha took up as soon as Elijah was translated. 2 Kings ii, 13, 14. 
In a similar way Eliakim was appointed the successor of Shebna. Isa. 
xxii, 15, 20, 21. 

Among the Persians the prophet's mantle is a symbol of spiritual power, 
and is transferred from a prophet to his successor. Among the Hindoos 
when a Brahmin is inducted into the sacred office he is always covered with 
a yellow mantle. 

183.— CHEMOSH. 

XXI, 29. Woe to thee, Moab ! thou, art undone, O people of 

Chemosh, 

Chemosh was the national god of the Moabites, and hence they are called 
in this text, and in Jer. xlviii, 46, "the people of Chemosh." He was 
also worshiped by the Ammonites. Judges xi, 24. Solomon built high 
places for Chemosh and Molech in the neighborhood of Jerusalem. 
1 Kings xi, 7. Nothing definite is known concerning this god, or the mode 
of his worship. There is an old Jewish tradition that he was worshiped 
under the form of a black stone ; and another that his worshipers went bare- 
headed, and refused to wear garments that were made by use of a needle. 
Chemosh*is also mentioned in Jer. xlviii, 7, 13. His name is found on the 
celebrated Moabite Stone. 

184.— BAAL. 

XXII, 41. It came to pass on the morrow, that Balak took Ba- 
laam, and brought him up into the high places of Baal. 

The word Baal signifies lord, not so much in the sen<e of ruler, as 
possessor, or owner. The- name was given to the principal male deity 
of the Phenicians, corresponding to Bel or Belus- of the Babylonians. See 
note on Tsa. xlvi, 1. The name of the female deity associated with Baal was 
Astarte. The worship of Baal was of great antiquity, and was accompanied 
with splendid ceremonies. Priests and prophets were consecrated to his 
service. 2 Kings x, 10. Incense (Jer. vii, 0) and prayers (1 Kings xviii, 26) 
were offered. The worshipers prostrated themselves before the idol and 
kissed it, (1 Kings xix, 18,^ perhaps at the same time kissing the hand 
toward the sun. See note on Dent, iv, 10. They danced with shouts, and 
cut themselves with knives. 1 Kings xviii, 26-28. The offerings were some- 
times vegetable (Hosea ii, 8) and sometimes animal. 1 Kings xviii, 23. 
Human sacrifices were also offered. Jer. xix, 5. 

Efforts have been made to identify Baal with one of the gods of classical 
mythology, but the results are by no means satisfactory. The Greek Zeus 
the Roman Jupiter, Cronos or Saturn. Ares or Mars, and Hercules, have each 
been supposed by different writers to be the same as Baal. In reference to 

7 



102 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Numbers. 

the astrological nature of the worship, the most prevalent opinion is, that 
Baal represented the sun, while Astarte, his companion, represented the 
moon; but Gesenius and others assert that the two terms respectively 
stood for Jupiter and Venus. Baal and Gad are considered by some to be 
identical. See note on Isa. lxv, 11. 
The ordinary symbol of Baal was a bull. 

185.— BAAL-PEOR. 
XXV, 3. Israel joined himself unto Baal-peor. 

The worship of this special form of Baal is generally supposed to have 
been accompanied with obscene rites. This seems to be indicated in this 
chapter. Some consider Baal-peor to be the same as Chemosh. 



DEUTERONOMY. 

186.— CAMPING-GROUNDS. 

II, 23. The Avim which dwelt in Hazerim. 

Hazerim is not the name of a place, as it appears to be in the text. The 
same word occurs in Gen. xxv, 16, where it is translated " towns," and in 
Psa. x, 8, and Isa. xlii, 11, where it is translated "villages." In the text it is 
untranslated. The hazerim are supposed to have been the camping-grounds 
of wandering tribes, with a stone wall around them for protection. Mr. 
Palmer, in endeavoring to trace the route of the Israelites across the desert, 
found remains of some camping-grounds, evidently of ancient origin. The 
Maghrabim, or African Arabs, have their encampments on this principle at 
the present day. "When a camping-ground has been selected, cattle, as the 
most precious possession of the tribe, are collected together in one place, 
and the huts or tents are pitched in a circle round them ; the whole is Then 
fenced in with a low wall of stones, in which are inserted thick bundles 
of thorny acacia, the tangled branches and long needle-like spikes forming a 
perfectly impenetrable hedge around the encampment. These are called 
Dowdrs, and there can be but little doubt that they are the same with the 
Hazeroth, or 'field inclosures,' used by the pastoral tribes mentioned in the 
Bible."— Desert of the Exodus, p. 321. 

187.— STONE CITIES. 

III, 5. All these cities were fenced with high walls, gates, 
and bars ; beside unwalled towns a great many. 

These cities of Bashan, which are also referred to in 1 Kings iv, 13, srem 
to have astonished their conquerors. " Why were these cities, with their 



Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 103 

walls and gates, something so remarkable to the Israelites? Because they 
had come from the Red Sea through the wilderness, until near the Mandhur, 
[that is, the Hieromax,] almost exclusively through a limestone region, in 
which, until this day, the troglodyte-life predominates ; the soft limestone 
beiug adapted to the excavation of artificial caverns. That, in a land of 
hard basalt, is not to be thought of. There, in order to obtain the security 
which the caverns afford, it is necessary to build cities, walled around and 
provided with strong gates. To the astonishment of European travelers, 
there remain to-day large numbers of the walled cities of Bashan, with their 
black basalt houses, gates, doors, and bolts." — Raumer; Paldttina, pp. 
78, 79. 

Recent travelers tell marvelous stories of these unoccupied stone cities, 
which are still in excellent preservation. Porter believes that some of them 
are the veritable cities taken by the Hebrews at the time referred to in the 
text. He says: "Time produces little effect on such buildings as these. 
The heavy stoue slabs of the roofs resting on the massive walls make the 
structure as firm as if built of solid masonry; and the black basalt used is 
almost as hard as iron. There can scarcely be a doubt, therefore, that these 
are the very cities erected and inhabited by the Rephaim, the aboriginal 
occupants of Bashan." — Giant Cities of Bashan, p. 84. 

Macgregor also speaks of the immense slabs of stone which were used in 
the construction of these black basalt houses. He saw double doors made 
of slabs seven feet high and six inches thick, and with pivots about four 
inches long and three in diameter, turning in stone sockets; and stone 
window shutters, in size four feet by three. The room in which he slept 
was fourteen feet long, nine wide, and eleven high. Stone rafters supported 
a stone roof. The walls were from four to six feet thick. Many of the 
houses were two stories high, and a few three stories. See The Rob Roy on 
the Jordan, pp. 175-179. 

The high antiquity claimed for these houses has been disputed, though all 
agree that they are of great age; but, whether they are the same buildings 
which the Hebrew warriors saw, or are of more recent date, they are 
undoubtedly similar in construction and in general appearance to the dwell- 
ings which made up the cit<es spoken of in the text. 

1§§.— BEDSTEADS. 
Ill, 11. Behold, his bedstead, was a bedstead of iron. 

Bedsteads are less common in the East than with us, the bed being usually 
made on the divan, or platform around the room. Frames, however, are 
sometimes used. In Palestine, Syria, and Persia, these are made of boards. 
In Egypt they are made of palm-stieks, and probably were so made in Pales- 
tine in the time of King Og, when the palm was more plentiful than now. 



104 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. 





36. — Egyptian Bedsteads. 



The palm-sticks, however, would 
make rather a rickety bedstead 
for a heavy man, and hence the 
giant-king needed something more 
substantial. Bedsteads of metal 
seem to have been in more common 
use in the East formerly than at 
present, though their use in ancient 
times appears to have been limited 
mainly to princes and persons of 
distinction. Bedsteads of gold, and 
also of silver, are spoken of by 
heathen writers. Some of these 
were used in temples, and some 
in palaces. Mention is likewise 
made of such in Esther i, 6, where 
see the note. Bedsteads of brass 
and of iron are also mentioned by 
ancient writers. 



189.— ZABAISM. 
IV, 19. Lest thou lift up thine eyes unto heaven, and. when 
thou seest the sun, and. the moon, and the stars, even all the 
host of heaven, shouldest be driven to worship them, and 
serve them. 

The worship of the heavenly bodies is the most ancient and widely spread 
form of idolatry, and frequent allusions are made to it in the Scriptures. Its 
chief promoters were called Sabians. and sometimes Zabians; and the idol- 
atry itself is known as Sabaism or Zabaism; probably from the Hebrew 
tsaba, a host. Thus in the name of the system the objects of worship are 
indicated: the "hosts of heaven." 

It is supposed that many of the precepts in the Mosaic law were directed 
against Zabaism in its various corrupt forms. The text is an illustration. 
Besides the direct reference to this superstition in this and in other passages, 
occasional allusion to it may be found elsewhere. The many texts in which 
the expression "the Lord of hosts" occurs, seem to be directly leveled at 
Zabaism; teaching that there is a being superior to the hosts the Zabians 
worshiped, and to all hosts, whether of heaven or earth. Thus we read in 
Genesis ii, 1: "Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the 
hosts of them; " and in Job ix, 7-9: "Which commandeth the sun, and it 
riseth not ; and sealeth up the stars ; which alone spreadeih out the heavens, 
and treadeth upon the waves of the sea ; which maketh Arcturus, Orion, and 
Pleiades, and the chambers of the south." In these and similar passages God 



Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 105 

is declared to be the Creator of the heavenly bodies, and therefore far above 
them. There is also an allusioa to Zabaism in Job xxxi, 26-28: "If I be- 
held the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness; and my 
heart hath been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand ; this also 
were an iniquity to be punished by the judge : for I should have denied the 
God that is above." Kissing the hand was a mark of respect to superiors, and 
was also an ancient idolatrous rite. 1 Kings xix, 18, may also refer to this 
custom, as well as to that of actually kissing the idol. An old writer, speak- 
ing of these two texts, says: "These places refer to the Gentiles' mode of 
adoring the sun by lifting the right hand to their mouth ; of which there is 
frequent mention among Pagan writers." — Gale's Court of the Gentiles, 
vol. I, book ii, chap. 8. — Mollerus quaintly suggests that as "men could not 
attain to kiss the sun and moon with their mouth, they extended their hand 
to those celestial bodies, and thence moving it back to their mouth, they 
kissed it in token of homage and worship." 

According to Maimonides the Zabians made images of the sun in gold 
and of the moon in silver. They built chapels and placed these images in 
them, believing that the power of the stars flowed into them. They offered 
to the sun at certain times " seven bats, seven mice, and seven reptiles, to- 
gether with certain other matters." 

Zabaism is likewise referred to in Deut. xvii, 3; 2 Kings xvii, 16; xxi, 3; 
xxiii, 5 ; Jer. viii, 2. 

190.— PORTAL INSCRIPTIONS. 

VI, 9. Thou, shalt write them upon the posts of thy house, 
and. on thy gates. 

It was a common custom among the ancient Egyptians to write inscrip- 
tions on the doors of their houses. Besides the names of the dwellers, 
lucky sentences were written. The Mohammedans write passages from the 
Koran on their doors. " God ! " is written on some ; " the Excellent Creator 
is the Everlasting,'' is also seen. The modern Jews have in some places an 
arrangement equivalent to this. The passages in Deut. vi, 4-9, and xi, 13-21, 
are written on one side of a piece of parchment which is prepared especially 
for the purpose, while on the other side is written i'TIO the Almighty. The 
parchment is then rolled up, so that the sacred name shall be on the outside, 
and is put into a reed or metallic cylinder, which has in it a hole just large 
enough to show the "HE upon the parchment. This hole is covered by a 
piece of glass. Such a cylinder, with its parchment roll, is known by the name 
of Mezeuza, and is fastened to the right-hand door-post of every door in the 
house, so that it is in full sight, and may be touched or kissed as the dwellers 
in the house go in and out. The Jews from a very early period believed that 
the Mezevza guarded the house against the entrance of diseases and evil spirits. 



106 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. 

191.— WATERING WITH THE FOOT. 
XI, 10. Not as the land, of Egypt, from whence ye eame out, 
where thou, sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy foot. 

Two interpretations are given of this passage, either of which can find 
illustration in Oriental customs, and in the fact that from the absence of rain 
in Egypt, and the great breadth of plain country unbroken by hills, it has 
ever been necessary to water the land by artificial means. 1. One ancient 
mode of raising water from the Nile, or from the canals which were cut 
tli rough Egypt, was by means of a wheel which was worked by the feet. 
Dr. Robinson saw in Palestine several of these wheels which were used to 
draw water from wells. In describing one he says: "On the platform was 
fixed a small reel for the rope, which a man, seated on a level with the axis, 
wound up, by pulling the upper part of the reel toward him with his hands, 
while he at the same time pushed the lower part from him with the feet." — 
Bibl. Res. in Palestine, vol. ii, p. 22. 2. For crops which required to be fre- 
quently watered the fields were divided into square beds, surrounded by 
raised borders of earth, to keep in the water, which was introduced by chan- 
nels or poured in from buckets. The water could easily be turned from one 
square to another by making an opening in the border, the soft soil readily 
yielding to the pressure of the foot. This mode is also practiced in India. 

Allusion to one or the other of these customs is made in 2 Kings xix, 24. 

192.— IDOLATROUS USE OF BLOOD. 

XII, 23, 24. Only be sure that thou eat not the blood : for the 
blood is the life ; and thou mayest not eat the life with the 
flesh. Thou shalt not eat it ; thou shalt pour it upon the earth 
as water. See also Gen. ix, 4; Lev. vii, 26, 27; xvii, 10-14. 

The discussion which has risen on the various reasons for this prohibition 
of blood for food, so far as it concerns the physical consequences of such 
diet, or the typical character of sacrificial blood, or the relation of the blood 
to the life, can have no place here. There are, however, reasons for the law 
which may have been drawn from ancient idolatrous and cruel customs to 
which we may with propriety refer. R. Moses Bar Nachman, an old Jewish 
writer, says that the Zabians ''gathered together blood for the devils, their 
idol gods, and then came themselves and ate of that blood with them as 
being the devil's guests, and invited to eat at the table of devils, and so 
were joined in federal society with them; and by this kind of communion 
with devils they were able to prophesy and foretell things to come.'— Towx- 
LET's Maimonides, p. 76. 

The sacred books of the Hindoos exhibit traces of the same infernal mode 
of worship. They give directions concerning various oblations of blood, the 
different nnimals from which it mav be drawn, and the different ves« Is in 



Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 107 

which it may be offered, positively forbidding, however, to pour it on the 
ground. If a similar prohibition existed among the Zabians, verse 24 may be 
a reference to it, commanding the Hebrews to do what the Zabians were for- 
bidden. Hindoo devotees drink the reeking blood from newly killed buffa- 
loes and fowls. 

" Drink offerings of blood " are spoken of in Psa. xvi, 4; and in Zech. ix, 7, 
there is evident allusion to the idolatrous use of blood. 

In addition to this, the old Jewish rabbins say that this prohibition against 
blood was made on account of an ancient custom of eating raw flesh, 
especially the flesh of living animals cut or torn from them, and devoured 
while reeking with the warm blood. Bruce tells of a similar custom among 
the modern Abyssinians, and his statement, though at first received with 
ridicule, has been confirmed by other travelers. The hungry Israelites, after 
defeating the Philistines between Michmash and Aijalon, seem from the nar- 
rative in 1 Sam. xiv, 32-34, to have indulged in a similar horrid practice. 

193.— ABIB. 

XVI, 1. The month of Abib. 

Abib means a green ear. This denotes the condition of the barley in 
Palestine and Egypt during this month. It was the first month of the Jew- 
ish ecclesiastical year, and was in later times called Nisan. See Neb., ii, 1 ; 
Esther iii, 7. It corresponded nearly to our month of April. 

194.— IDOL GROVES. 

XVI, 21. Thou, shalt not plant thee a grove of any trees near 
unto the altar of the Lord thy God, which thou shalt make 
thee. 

Idol temples and altars were surrounded by thick groves and trees, which 
became the resort of the abandoned of both sexes, and in which, under plea 
of idolatrous worship, excesses of the vilest kind were perpetrated. For 
this reason G-od forbade the planting of trees near his altars, lest his people 
should become, or seem to be, like the heathen. See also Isa. lvii, 5 ; lxv, 3 ; 
lxvi, 17 ; Jer. ii, 20 ; iii, 6 ; Ezek. vi, 13 ; xx, 28 ; Hos. iv, 13. Some sup- 
pose the word "grove " here to mean a high wooden pillar, planted in the 
ground. See note on Judges iii, 7. 

195.— VARIOUS KINDS OF DIVINATION. 
XVIII, 10, 11. . . . That useth divination, or an observer of times, 
or an enchanter, or a witch, or a charmer, or a eonsulter 
with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a necromancer. 

The word divination (kosem kesamim, "divining divinations") may here 
be taken as a generic term, of which the seven terms following represent 
the species. This might be more clearly shown by a slight change in th i 



108 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. 

punctuation, and an omission of the word or, which was supplied by the 
translators; e. g., "that useth diviuation: an observer of times, or an 
enchanter," etc. 

By divination, as the term is used in the text, we understand an attempt 
to penetrate the mysteries of the future by using magical arts, or super- 
stitious incantations, or by the arbitrary interpretation of natural signs. 
Its practice was very prevalent in the time of Moses among all idolatrous 
nations, as indeed it is to this day. We have occasional illustrations of it in 
Christian lands. It became necessary, therefore, to warn the Hebrews 
against the fascinating influence of this ungodly habit. God provided cer- 
tain lawful means by which his will was revealed, such as by urim and 
thummim, by dreams, by prophecies, and by several other modes, so that 
there was no excuse for resorting to the practices of the heathen. These 
are spoken of under the following heads. 

1. An observer of times, "meonen: y ' one that distinguishes lucky from 
unlucky days, recommending certain days for the commencement of enter- 
prises, and forbidding other days ; deciding also on the good or bad luck of 
certain months, and even of years. This sort of diviners often made their 
predictions by noticing the clouds. Some would refer this to divination by 
means of words, of which we have illustration in more modern times in 
bibliomancy, that is, opening a book at random and taking, for the will of God, 
the first words seen. Still others suppose that meonen has reference to fas- 
cination by means of " the evil eye." 

2. An enchanter, "menacliesh." This may refer to divination by the cup, 
as already explained in the note on Gen. xliv, 5, in which passage the word 
nachesh is used. The Septuagint translators supposed it to mean divination 
by watching the flight of birds ; while some later interpreters refer it to the 
divination by means of serpents, which were charmed by music. 

3. A witch, " mekasTisheph." This word is used in the plural in Exod. 
vii, 11, to denote the "magicians" of Pharaoh, who were well versed in the 
arts of wonder-working. In Exod. xxii, 18 the word is used in the feminine, 
and is translated witch, as in the text. Maimonides informs us that the 
greater number of works of divination were practiced by women. 

4. A charmer, u clwber:" (from the root cho.bar, to bind.) This was one 
who used " a species of magic which was practiced by binding magic knots." — 
Gesenius. Some think it may have been one who practiced a kind of divi- 
nation which drew or bound together noxious creatures for purposes of 
sorcery ; others, that it was one who used a magic ring for divination. 

5. A consulter with familar spirits, " shoel ob." This may have reference 
to a species of divination in which ventriloquism was used. The primary 
meaning of the word ob is a leathern bottle, which has led some authorities 
to think that this divination was one which called up departed spirits, and 



Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



109 



tliat the use of the word ob "probably arose from regarding the conjuror, 

while possessed by the demou, as a bottle, that is, vessel, case, in which the 
demon was contained." — Gesenius. Or, the word may have been used 
because these necromancers inflated themselves in the act of divination, like 
a skin bottle stretched to its utmost capacity, (see Job xxxii, 19 ;) as if they 
were filled with inspiration from supernatural powers. See Yv r ordsworth on 
Lev. xix, 31. The woman of Eudor who was consulted by Saul when the 
Philistines were about to attack him belongel to this class. Saul asked her 
to divine to him by the ob: (" the familiar spirit ") 1 Sam. xxviii, 7, 8. 

6. A wizard, " yiddeoni: " (the knowing one.) This may have indicated any 
one who was unusually expert in the various magical tricks of divination. 

7. A necromancer, " doresh el hammethim : " (one who seeks unto the dead.) 
The necromancers had various modes of divination by the dead. They some- 
times made use of a bone or a vein of a dead body ; and sometimes poured 
warm blood into a corpse, as if to renew life. They pretended to raise ghosts 
bv various incnntations and other magical ceremonies. 



196.— AXES. 
XIX, 5. His hand, feteheth a stroke with the axe to cut down 
the tree, and the head slippeth from the helve. 

There were doubtless different forms of axe in use among the Hebrews, as 
different words are used to signify the instrument. Garzen, the word used 
here and in Deut. xx, 19 ; 1 Kings vi, 7 ; and Isa. x. 15, was probably an axe 
which was used for felling trees and 



for hewing large timber. Repre- 
sentations of ancient Assyrian and 
Egyptian axes have come down to 
us. Some of these axes are fast- 
ened to the handle by means of 
thongs. There is one kind, how- 
ever, which is not so fastened, but 
which has an opening in it into 
which the helve is inserted, as* with 
us. It bears a close resemManee 
to a modern axe. and from the refer- 
ence in the text to the head slip- 
ping off seems to have been the 
garzen here spoken of. Egyptian 
axes were made of bronze, and per- 
haps of iron also. That some, at 37.— Ancient Axes. 
least, of the axes of the Hebrews were made of iron is evident from 2 Kings 
vi, 5, 6. 




110 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. 

19T.— LANDMARKS. 

XIX, 14. Thou shalt not remove thy neighbor's landmark, 
which they of old. time have set in thine inheritance. 

In the East the fields of different owners are not marked by fences, as with 
us, but the boundaries are indicated by heaps of small stones, or by a ridge, 
or by posts, or by single stones set upright about a rod apnrt. It is easy for 
a dishonest man to remove these landmarks, little by little each year, and 
thus gradually encroach upon his neighbor. This practice is alluded to in 
Job xxiv, 2, and is forbidden in Prov. xxii, 28 and xxiii, 10, as in our text. 
A curse was pronounced upon those who removed landmarks. Deut. xxvii, 17. 
A figurative allusion is made to this crime in Hosea v, 1 0. 

Not only the Jews, but other ancient nations, especially the Romans, had 
stringent laws against the removal of landmarks. In the British Museum 
are two or three very curious Babylonian monuments which are supposed to 
have been landmarks, and to bo covered with curses on those who remove 
them. One of them is of marble, in shape of a massive fish. On the head 
is the figure of a serpent, and various other characters ; and on the sides, in 
arrow-headed letters, are the curses. 

19§.— DEDICATION OF HOUSES. 

XX, 5. What man is there that hath built a new house and 
hath not dedicated it. 

We are not informed as to the ceremonies accompanying the dedication 
of a dwelling; they were probably a combination of social and devotional. 
The title of the thirtieth Psalm is, "A Psalm or Song at the Dedication of 
the House of David." The completion of the wall of Jerusalem in the time 
of Nehemiah was celebrated by a dedication, at which there was great 
rejoicing. Neh. xii, 27. The rabbins say that not only was a newly built 
house to be dedicated, but a house lately obtained, whether by inheritance, 
purchase, or gift. Houses that were not suitable for habitation, and that 
could not be made so, were not dedicated; but houses such as granaries 
and barns, that could in case of necessity be converted into dwellings, were 
dedicated. 

The custom of dedicating dweirng-houses was common among the ancient 
Egyptians, and is practiced to this day among the Hindoos. 

199.— THE GATE A PLACE OF JUSTICE. 

XXI, 19. Then shall his father and his mother lay hold on him, 
and bring him out unto the elders of his city, and unto the 
gate of his place. 

As the vicinity of the gate was a place of popular resort, (see note on 
Gen. xix, 1,) it became a convenient place for the administration of justice. 
Here courts were held, and disputes were settled. See Deut. xvi, 18: 



Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. Ill 

xxv. 7; Josh, xx, 4; Ruth iv, 1; Job v, 4; xxxi, 21; Psa. exxvii, 5; Prov. 
xxii, 22; xxxi, 23; Jer. xxxviii, 7; Lam. v, 14; Amos v, 12; Zech. viii, 16. 
From the fact that princes and judges thus sat at the gate in the discharge 
of their official duties, the word gate became a synonym for power or author- 
ity. This is illustrated in Matt, xvi, 18, where the expression "gates of 
hell" means powers of hell. We find it also in the title given to the govern- 
ment of the Turkish Empire, ." the Ottoman Porte " or " the Sublime Porte; " 
(porta, a gate.) " The Gate of Judgment " is a term still common among the 
Arabians to express a court of justice, and was introduced into Spain by 
the Saracens. 

Modern Oriental travelers speak of the existence at this day of the custom 
mentioned in the text. 

200.— DISTINCTION IN DRESS. 

XXII, 5. The woman shall not wear that which pertaineth 
unto a man, neither shall a man put on a woman's garment: 
for all that do so are abomination unto the Lord, thy God. 

The distinction between the dress of the sexes being less than with us, 
there was the greater need of this regulation. There is reason to believe 
that the law was made not merely to preserve decency, but because the 
heathen were in the habit of pursuing a different course as a part of their 
idolatrous worship. Maimonides says: "In the books of the idolaters it is 
commanded that when a man presents himself before the Star of Venus, he 
shall wear the colored dress of a woman; and whtn a woman adores the 
Star of Mars, she shall appear in armor." Pagan idols were frequently 
represented witli the features of one sex and the dress of the other, and 
their worshipers endeavored to be like them. It is not at all unlikely that 
this custom was as old as the time of Moses, and was a partial reason for 
the enacting of this law. 

201 .—BATTLEMENTS. 

XXII, 8. When thou buildest a new house, then thou shalt 
make a battlement for thy roof, that thou bring not blood upon 
thine house, it any man fall from thence. 

The roofs of Eastern houses are flat, having a slight declivity from the 
center. As they are used for a variety of purposes by day, and often for 
sleeping at night, (1 Sam. ix, 26.) it becomes necessary to guard them by 
means of a wall. Almost every Eastern house has a parapet, the Moslems 
making theirs very high, to screen their women from observation. 

The houses of Christians are sometimes built without parapets, and serious 
accidents occur. Dr. Shaw describes the battlements on the roofs of the 
houses in Barbary as very low on the side next the street, and also when 
they make partitions from the roofs of neighbors. He says of this outside 



112 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. 

wall that it is " frequently so low that one may easily climb over it." — Trav- 
els, p. 210. He also states that the inside parapet, next to the court of the 
house, is always breast high. There is sometimes here only a balustrade or 
lattice-work. In Syria, however, the higher battlement is next to the street, 
and the lower one next to the court. 

202.— MINGLED SEED. 
XXII, 9. Thou shalt not sow thy vineyard, with divers seeds : 
lest the fruit of thy seed which thou hast sown, and the fruit 
of thy vineyard, be defiled. 

The Zabians were accustomed to sow barley and dried grapes together, 
believing that without this union there would not be a good vintage; but 
that with it the gods would be propitious to them. Bishop Patrick observes, 
that if the Israelites had done this the fruits of the harvest would have 
been impure, because associated .with idolatry. The first-fruits would not 
have been accepted by God, and hence the whole crop would have been 
useless. 

203.— MIXED CLOTH. 

XXII, 11. Thou shalt not wear a garment of divers sorts, . as 
of woolen and linen together. 

This was in opposition to the Zabian priests, who wore robes of woolen 
and linen, perhaps hoping thereby to have the benefit of some lucky con- 
junction of planets, which would bring a blessing on their sheep and their 
Max. It is said that the pious Jews would not sew a garment of woolen 
with a linen thread, and that if one saw an Israelite wearing a garment of 
mixed cloth it was lawful for him to fall upon him and tear the forbidden 
garment to pieces. 

204.— DEBTORS PROTECTED. 

XXIV, 10, 11. When thou dost lend thy brother any thing, thou 
shalt not go into his house to fetch his pledge. Thou shalt 
stand abroad, and the man to whom thou dost lend shall 
bring out the pledge abroad unto thee. 

This was a humane law designed to protect the poor man from the 
intrusion of the money lender. " The strict laws regulating Oriental inter- 
course sufficiently guard the harems of all but the very poor. When the 
money lender goes to any respectable house he never rudely enters, but 
stands 'abroad' and calls, and the owner comes forth to meet him." — 
Thomson, The Land and the Booh, vol. i, p. 500. Another advantage of this 
law was, that it prevented the usurer from selecting his pledge, giving the 
choice to the poor debtor. He could "bring out : ' what he pleased, provided 
its value was sufficient to meet the claim of the creditor. The latter was 
compelled to accept it. whether pleased with it or not. 



Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



113 



205.— THE OUTER GARMENT. 

XXIV, 12, 13. If the man be poor, thou, shalt not sleep with his 
pledge : in any ease thou, shalt deliver him the pledge again 
when the sun goeth down, that he may sleep in his own 
raiment. 

From this it would seem that the most common article of pledge was a 
part of the clothing. The words salmah and simlaJi, (as it is in the parallel 
passage, Exod. xxii, 26,) were used to denote clothing in geDeral, but 
especially the large outer garment, or wrapper, which was skillfully wound 
around the person, and 
was as useful at night for 
a bed covering as during 
the day for clothing. This 
is the i( raiment " of the 
text. The Orientals do not 
change their clothes on re- 
tiring to rest, and hence 
this large outer garment 
becomes very serviceable. 
To keep such a garment 
from a poor man over night 
was indeed an act of in- 
humanity which is justly 
condemned by the law. 
The consequences of such 
cruelty are touchingly de- 
scribed by Job where he 
speaks of the works of 
wicked men: "They cause 
the naked to lodge without clothing, that they have no covering in the cold. 
They are wet with the showers of the mountains, and embrace the rock for 
want of a shelter." Job xxiv, 7, 8. 

The abba of the modern Bedawi is supposed to bear a close resemblance 
to the ancient garment spoken of. It is made of wool and hair, of various 
degrees of fineness; is sometimes entirely black, and sometimes entirely 
white; and is marked with two broad stripes. It is altogether shapeless, 
being like a square sack, with an opening in front, and with slits at the sides 
to let out the arms. Very similar to this is the hyke, which is worn by the 
Moors of Northern Africa, and used by them for a covering at night and for 
a cloak by day. Dr. Shaw speaks of several varieties of the hyke, both as to 
size and quality. It is a loose but troublesome garment, being frequently 




8S.— Outer Garment. 



114 



BIBLE MANNEBS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. 



disconcerted and falling to the ground ; so that the person who wears it is 
every moment obliged to tuck it up and fold it anew about bis body." — 
Travels, p. 224. It is often used to wrap up burdens that are to be carried, 
and in tbis way the Israelites carried their kneading troughs wrapped up in 
the folds of their outer garments, and borne on tbeir shoulders. Exod. 
xii, 34. 

The outer garment is in the New Testament represented by the word 
IfiuTiov, which in the Septuagint is the word used in this text and in Exod. 
xxii, 26. It is called a cloak in Matt, v, 40; raiment in Matt, xxvii, 31; 
vesture in Rev. xix, 13; garment in Matt, xiv, 36. In most of the passages 
in the New Testament where the word " garment " is used this is the 
article meant. 

This outer garment was easily and frequently laid aside. See Mutt, 
xxi, 1, S ; xxiv, 18 ; John xiii, 4, 12 ; Acts vii, 58; xxii, 20, 23. 



206.— OLIVE GATHERING. 
XXIY, 20. When thou, beatest thine olive tree, thou shalt not 
go over the boughs again : it shall be for the stranger, for 
the fatherless, and. for the widow. 

This refers to one of the modes of gathering olives still practiced in the 
East, that is. by beatiug the branches with sticks. It was mercifully 
ordered that the Israelites should give the trees but one beating, leaving 
for the poor gleaners all the fruit that did not by this means drop oft". 

Olives are gathered also by shaking the trees. This is referred to in Isa. 
xvii, 6, and xxiv, 13. In these passages the mode of gleaning seems to be 
referred to. 

207.— THRESHING BY OXEN. 
XXY, 4. Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out 
the corn. 

Threshing was sometimes done by instruments, (see note on Isa. 
xxviii, 27, 28,) and sometimes by having the grain trampled under foot 




. — Ancient Egyptians Thkeshtng. 

by horses or oxen. This is still a common mode in the East. The cattle 
are driven over the grain, treading heavily as they go, and in this rude, 



Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. llo 

wasteful manner the threshing is accomplished. In general, the patient 
beasts are allowed to eat of the grain they tread out, though sometimes 
they are muzzled by parsimonious masters. See also Hosea x, 11. Paul 
from this law enforces the duty of ministerial support. 1 Cor. ix, 9. 

20§.— BAREFOOT. 
XXV, 10. His name shall be called in Israel, The house of 
him that hath his shoe loosed. 

To go barefoot was a sign of distress and humiliation. Thus David went 
up Mount Olivet when he left Jerusalem at the time of Absalom's rebellion. 
2 Sam. xv, 30. The humiliation of the Egyptians was represented by the 
prediction of their walking barefoot. Isa. xx, 2-4. When Ezekiel was direct- 
ed to cease his mourning he was told to put on his shoes. Ezek. xxiv, 17. 
Michaelis says, "Barefooted was a term of reproach, and probably signified 
a man who had sold everything, a spendthrift and a bankrupt." — Com. Laws 
Moses, vol. i, p. 435. In this way the man who refused to marry his 
brother's childless widow was considered a worthless fellow. 

209.— WEIGHTS. 

XXV, 13. Thou, shalt not have in thy bag divers weights, a 
great and a small. 

1. Tbe marginal reading for " divers weights " is " a stone and a stone," 
which is a literal rendering of the Hebrew. See also Prov. xi, 1; xvi, 11. 
"Weights were no doubt originally made of different-sized stones, from which 
fact eben, a stone, was used to signify a weight, even after other materials 
were used for weights. "We have the word " stone " in our own language 
to denote a weight of a certain size, and the Germans use the corresponding 
word stein for a similar purpose. 

2. Oriental peddlers still have, as in ancient times, two sets of weights, one 
for buying and the other for selling. Allusion is made to this species of 
dishonesty in Prov. xx. 10, and in Micah vi, 11. 

210.— FUNERAL FEASTS. 

XXVT, 14. I have not eaten thereof in my mourning, neither 
have I taken away aught thereof for any unclean use, nor 
given aught thereof for the dead. 

There is no evidence of any allusion here to idolatrous customs. The 
reference is probably to the feasts which were given on funeral occasions to 
the friends assembled. See Hosea ix, 4. The custom still exists in Pales- 
tine. The phrase "given aught thereof for the dead" may have reference 
to the practice of sending provisions into a house of mourning; to which 



116 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Deuteronomy. 

custom allusion is supposed to be made in 2 Sam. iii, 35, where David, on 
occasion of Abner's death, refused to eat the food which was set before him. 
The expression " Eat not the bread of men," in Ezek. xxiv, 17, is thought 
to refer to the same custom. See also Jer. xvi, 7, 8. Dr. Thomson, how- 
ever, furnishes a different explanation to this giving for the dead. He says : 
" On certain days after the funeral large quantities of corn and other food 
are cooked in a particular manner, and sent to all the friends, however nu- 
merous, in the name of the dead. I have had many such presents, but my 
dislike of the practice, or something else, renders these dishes peculiarly dis- 
gusting to me." — The Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 150. 



211.— PLASTERED MONUMENTS. 
XXVII, 2, 3. Thou, shalt set thee up great stones, and. plaster 
them with plaster : and thou shalt write upon them all the 
words of this law. 

Michselis supposed that the letters were first cut in the stone and then 
covered entirely with plaster, so that in the coming ages, when the cement 
should crumble off, the law might be found in all its integrity. In this he 
has been followed by some commentators. The probability, however, is, 
that the lime was first spread over the stones, and the words of the law then 
cut into the plaster or painted on it; Such stones thus prepared, two thou- 
sand years ago or longer, are still in existence in Palestine. The Egyp- 
tians are said to have spread a kind of stucco over sandstone, and even over 
granite, before the paintings were made. Prokesch found in the tombs in 
the pyramids of Dashoor a stone on which red mortar had first been laid, 
and then the hieroglyphics and a figure of Apis impressed on the coating. 

212.— IDOLATROUS SPOTS. 
XXXII, 5. They have corrupted themselves, their spot is not 
the spot of his children. 

The spot or blot here spoken of is said to be something that does not be- 
long to the children of God. "Their spot is not of his children." Allusion 
is supposed to be made here to the marks which idolaters put upon their 
persons, particularly on their foreheads, in honor of their deities. It is a 
very ancient practice, and probably existed before Moses' time. Forbes, in 
his Oriental Memoirs, says that in India different idolatrous sects have differ- 
ent marks. These are specially common among the two principal sects, the 
worshipers of Siva and the worshipers of Vishnoo. The marks are hori- 
zontal and perpendicular liues ; crescents or circles; or representations of 
leaves, eyes, and other objects. They are impressed on the forehead by the 
officiating Brahmin with a composition of sandal-wood dust and oil, or the 



Deuteronomy.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



117 



ashes of cow dung arid turmeric. The colors are red, black, white, and 
yellow. In many cases these marks are renewed daily. 

Zophar may have referred to a similar custom when he spoke to Job about 
lifting up his face without spot. Job xi, 15. Eliphaz also spoke of lifting 
up the face to God. Job xxii, 26. Job himself subsequently denied that any 
blot was on his hands. Job xxxi, 7. In the Revelation of St. John there 
are several references to idolatrous marks on the forehead and hands See 
Rev. xiii, 16 ; xiv, 9 ; xix, 20 ; xx, 4. 

213.— TREADING OLIVES. 

XXXIII, 24. Let him be acceptable to his brethren, and. let him 
dip his foot in oil. 

This refers to the primitive method of treading the olives in order to ex- 
press the oil. It is not now practiced, and could only be done when the 
olives were very soft. There is a similar allusion in Micah vi, 15. See also 
the note on Job xxix, 6. 



214.— THE EVERLASTING ARMS. 



XXXIII, 27. The eternal God 
are the everlasting arms. 



is thy refuge, and underneath 



thus 



By this bold image Moses represents the protecting power of God 
reversing the idea of the 
Egyptians, who had pict- 
ures of the god Horus with 
inverted head and out- 
stretched arms over the 
earth. This was one mode 
by which they represent- 
ed the vault of heaven, 
as is shown in the engrav- 
ing. The beetle, or scarabaeus, is the hieroglyphic for the name of Horus 

8 




Egyptian Gob Horits. 



118 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Joshua. 



JOSHUA. 

215.— ROOFS USED FOR STORAGE. 
II, 6. She had. brought them up to the roof of the house, and 
hid them with the stalks of flax, -which she had laid in order 
upon the roof. 

The flat roofs of Eastern houses, being exposed to sun and air, are well 
adapted for the reception of grain or fruit, which may be placed there to 
ripen or to be dried. The flax-stalks, piled upon the roof to dry in the sun- 
shine, would afford a very good hiding-place for the spies. 

216.— KNIVES. 
V, 2. At that time the Lord said unto Joshua, Make thee 
sharp knives. 

Knives were made of flint, bone, copper, iron, or steeL Specimens of 
ancient Egyptian and Assyrian knives are to be found in museums, and they 
probably have a general resemblance to those used by the Hebrews. They 
are of various shapes, according to the purpose for which they were made. 
Knives were not much used at meals. Even to this day the Orientals prefer 
dividing their meat with the fingers. 

217.— STONE HEAPS. 

VII, 26. And they raised over him a great heap of stones. 

It was customary to heap up stones as rude monuments of important 
events. See Gen. xxxi, 46 ; Josh, iv, 3, 6. In the case of noted criminals this 
was done, not merely to mark the spot of their burial, but as a monument of 
the popular abhorrence of their crimes. This case of Achan is an illustra- 
tion. Another instance may be found in the case of Absalom. 2 Sam. 
xviii, 17. When Joshua captured and hanged the king of Ai, he commanded 
a heap of stones to be raised over his grave. Travelers tell us that it is st'll 
customary in Palestine to cast stones upon the graves of criminals, the pass- 
ers-by adding to the heap for a long time afterward. In the valley of Jehosh- 
aphat is a monument popularly known by the name of " Absalom's Tomb," 
and supposed to mark the site of the "pillar" which Absalom set up for 
himself ''in the king's dale." 2 Sam. xviii, 18. Mohammedans and Jews 
have for very many years been in the habit of casting stones at it as they 
pass, in token of their detestation of the crime of the rebellious son. 

218.— RENT BOTTLES. 
IX, 4. Wine bottles, old, and rent, and bound up. 
Bottles made of skins when they get old are liable to be torn. The rents 
are repaired by sewing the broken edges together, by letting in a piece of 



Joshua.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



119 



leather, by putting in a round piece of wood, or by gathering up the rent 
place like a purse. 
For a description of skin bottles, see note on Matt, ix, 17. 

219.— DEGRADING SERVICE. 

IX, 21. Let them be hewers of wood and drawers of water. 

This was a degradation that must have been greatly felt by the G-ibeonites, 
since it compelled them to relinquish the duties of soldiers, and take upon 
themselves menial services usually performed by women. 



220.— ENEMIES TRODDEN ON. 

X, 24. Come near, put your feet upon the necks of these kings. 

And they came near, and put their feet upon the necks of 

them. 

This is an ancient Oriental mode of 
treating captured kings, not as an act 
of cruelty, but as a symbolical repre- 
sentation of complete subjugation. 
Compare notes on Gen. xlix, 8, and 
1 Cor. xv, 25. 

Roberts says of the East Indians: 
" When people are disputing, should 
one be a little pressed, and the other 
begins to triumph, the former will 
say, 'I will tread upon thy neck, and 
after that beat thee.' A low-caste 
man insulting one who is high, is 
sure to hear some one say to the 
offended individual, 'Put your feet 
on his neck.' " — Oriental Illustrations, 
p. 135. 




-ASSYRIAN KlNG PLACING THE FOOT OK 
THE NECK OF AN ENEMY. 



JUDGES. 

221.— MUTILATION OF CAPTIVES. 

I, 6. They pursued after him, and caught him, and cut off 
his thumbs and his great toes. 

This was an ancient method of treating captured enemies. It rendered 
them permanently incapable of performing the duties of a soldier. Accord- 
ing to his own confession, (verse 7,) Adoni-bezek had practiced the same 
cruelties on many of the royal captives whom he had taken in battle. The 



120 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Judges. 

Assyrian kings were addicted to similar cruelties. One of the ancient mon- 
uments bears an inscription which was put upon it by order of Asshur-izir- 
pal, who began his reign B. C. 883. Iu this he says, speaking of a captured 
city, "Their men, young and old, 1 took prisoners. Of some I cut off the 
feet and hands ; of others I cut off the noses, ears, and lips ; of the young 

men's ears I made a heap ; of the old men's heads T built a minaret." 

Rawlixsox's Five Great Monarchies, vol. ii, p. 85, note. 

222.— BAALIM— ASHEROTH. 

Ill, 7. The children of Israel did evil in the sight of the Lord, 
and forgat the Lord their God, and served Baalim and the 
groves. 

1. Baalim is the plural of Baal. G-esenius defines it " images of Baal." 
Against this, however, it has been said that the verbs which are associated 
in the Bible with the word Baalim are not verbs which are used in con- 
nection with images, such as "setup," "cast down," "adorn," or "break 
in pieces; " but rather verbs which are used in connection with heathen de- 
ities, e. g., "to serve," "worship," "seek to," "go after," "put away." See 
Fairbairn's Imp. Bib. Diet, vol. i, pp. 137, 167. Some of these latter terms, 
however, can be used as properly in reference to images as to deities. 

Some writers explain the word as indicating or including the various 
modifications of BaaL such as Baal-Peor, Baal-Berith. Baal-Zebub. This 
might find illustration in Hosea ii, 17 : " For I will take away the names 
of Baalim out of her mouth, and they shall no more be remembered by their 
name." 

Others suppose Baalim to be what the old grammarians called the pluralis 
excellentiai ; a form of speech designed to describe the god in the wide extent 
of his influence and the various modes of his manifestation. The word is 
of frequent occurrence in the Old Testament. See Judges ii, 11: viii, 33 ; 
x, 10 ; 1 Sam. vii, 4; xii, 10 ; 2 Chron. xxiv, 7 ; Jer. ii, 23 ; ix, 14; etc. 

2. The word asheroth, here rendered "groves," is often found either in 
singular or plural form. In most places where it is used, the word " groves " 
is evidently inappropriate, though in this our English translation is like the 
Septuagint and the Vulgate. Selden, the eminent lawyer and antiquarian, 
in his work Be Biis Syris Syntagmata Buo, published in 1617, was the first 
to suggest that the word must be understood to mean, at least in some 
places, not groves, but images of Ashtoreth, the companion deity to Baal. 
This is the view now entertained by some of the best critics. It is cer- 
tainly more correct to speak of making images than to say that groves 
were made. If the words " image of Ashtoreth " or " images of Ash- 
toreth" are substituted for the word "grove" or "groves" in the following 
passages the sense will be much clearer : 1 Kings xvi, 33 ; 2 Kings 



Judges.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



121 



xvii, 16; xxi, 3; 2 Chron. xxxiii, 3. So in 2 Kings xvii, 10, and in 
2 Chron. xxxiii, 19, it is said that asheroth were set up; that is, these wooden 
figures of Ashtoreth, in addition to the graven images also mentioned. 
In the days of Josiah there was an asherah in God's house. We are 
told in 2 Kings xxiii, 6, what the good king did with it; "And he 
brought out the grove from the house of the Lord, without Jerusa- 
lem, unto the brook Kidron, and burned it at the brook Kidron, and stamped 
it small to powder, and cast the powder thereof upon the graves of the 
children of the people." All this is much more appropriately said of an 
image than of a grove. This asherah likewise had over it a canopy or tent, 
woven by the women. 2 Kings xxiii, 7. It was doubtless the same image 
which Manasseh had put into the house of the Lord. 2 Kings xxi, 7. From 
Judges vi, 25-30, and from other passages which speak of the asheroth as 
cut or burnt, it appears that they were made of wood. Some suppose 
that the expression " stamped it small to powder," in the text above quoted, 
indicates that the asherah in that instance was made of metal, since other- 
wise there would have been no need of stamping it afterburning; but the 
king may have pulverized the burnt wood in order more deeply to express 
his detestation of the idolatry which had occasioned its erection. 

The asherah of the Phenicians is thought by some writers to be connected 
with the " sacred tree " of the Assyrians, an object which appears very fre- 
quently on the Assyrian monuments. If this conjecture be based on face 
we may find in the representations of the sacred tree 
which have come down to us a picture of the asherali 
which the idolatrous Jews worshiped. 

Another opinion, which has found favor in some 
quarters, is, that Asherah was the name of a goddess 
worshiped by the Canaanites, either Ashtoreth or 
some other. The word " served " in the text, and 
in 2 Chron. xxiv, 18, seems at first to sanction this 
view; but as the passages previously quoted evi- 
dently speak of wooden images, it is probable that 
in these two texts the symbol is put, by metonymy, 
for the divinity. 

A learned English writer, some years ago, ad- 
vanced a very singular idea in reference to the ash- 
erah. He suggested that it was "an armillary and 

astronomical machine or instrument, erected long, very long ago — quite in 
the primitive ages ; " that it was used for purposes of divination in con- 
nection with idolatrous worship ; that it was probably about the height of a 
man, and had small balls branching off curvedly from the sustaining rod or 
axis; and that this axis was made of iron and brnss, the bottom being set 




Symbolic Trek. 



122 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Judges. 



in a socket of stone, in which, it turned as a pivot, requiring oil for lubrica- 
tion. In proof of this last assertion lie refers to the blessing -which Moses 
pronounced on Asher. Deut. xxxiii, 24. 25. He assumes that the word 
Asher in that text has reference to the asherah; that the shoes of iron and 
brass refer to the axis of the armillary machine, the foot of which is dipped 
in oil, that it may revolve more easily! The reasoning of his lengthy 
dissertation is more curious than conclusive. See Sdbcean Researches, by 
John Landseer, Essay YIII. 

223.— LOCKS. 
Ill, 23. Then Ehud went forth, through the porch, and shut the 
doors of the parlor upon him, and locked them. 

The early Oriental lock consisted merely of a wooden slide drawn into its 
place by a string, and fastened there by teeth or catches. The lock com- 
monly used in Egypt and Palestine is a long hollow piece of wood fixed in 
the door and sliding back and forth. A hole is made for it in the door post, 
and when it is pushed into this hole small bolts of iron wire fall into holes 
which are made for them in the top of the lock. The lock is placed on the 
inside of the door, and a hole is made in the door near the lock, through 
which the hand can be passed, and the key inserted. This will explain 
Solomon's Song v, 4, " My beloved put in his hand by the hole of the door." 
Some of these locks are very large and heavy. 



224.— KEYS. 
Ill, 25. Behold, he opened not the doors of the parlor : there- 
fore they took, a key and opened them. 

The key was usually of wood, though some have been found in Egypt of 

iron and bronze. The ordinary wood- 
en key is from six inches to two feet in 
.length, often having a handle of brass 
or silver, ornamented with filagree 
work. At the end there are wire pins, 
which are designed to loosen the 
fastenings of the lock. The key was 
anciently borne on the shoulder. See 
note on Isaiah xxii, 22. 
43 — Egyptian wooden Lock and Key. 




225— OX-GOADS. 

Ill, 31. Shamgar the son of Anath, which slew of the Philis- 
tines six hundred men with an ox-goad. 

This must have been a formidable weapon if, as is doubtless the case, the 
goad of that day was similar to the one now used in Palestine. It is a. 



Judges.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 123 

strong pole about eight feet long and two inches in diameter. At one end 
is a sharp point for pricking the oxen when their movements become 
intolerably slow, and at the other end is a broad chisel-like blade, which is 
used to clear the plowshare of the roots and thorns which impede it, or 
of the stiff clay which adheres to it. The pointed end of this instrument is 
alluded to in Acts ix, 5; xxvi, 14. 

226.— WHITE ASSES. 
V, 10. Speak, ye that ride on white asses, ye that sit in judg- 
ment, and walk by the way. 

There is no reason to interpret, as some writers do. the expression 
"white asses," to mean asses covered with white caparisons. The inten- 
tion is to indicate the wealth and luxury of the riders ; and as asses wholly 
wh ; te, or even nearly so, are rare and costly, the men who own them must 
be classed among the rich and influential. Morier says that in Persia the 
Mollahs, or men of the law, consider it a dignity suited to their character to 
ride on white asses. 

227.— AMBUSH NEAR WATER. 

V, 11. They that are delivered from the noise of archers in 
the places of drawing water, there shall they rehearse the 
righteous acts of the Lord. 

This refers to the practice of lying in ambush near wells and springs 
for the purpose of seizing flocks and herds when brought thither for water. 
Moses defended his future wife and her sisters against those who attacked 
them at the well. Exod. ii, 17. Dr. Shaw saw, near the coast of the 
western province of Algiers, a basin of Roman workmanship, which received 
the water of a beautiful rill, and which was called by the suggestive title 
of Shrub we Jcrub, that is, Drink and away. The name was given on ac- 
count of robbers, who lurked for booty near the drink ng-place. 

22§.— WINDOWS. 
V, 28. The mother of Sisera looked out at a window, and 
cried through the lattice. 

The walls of Oriental houses present but few windows to the street, and 
these are high up from the ground. They very seldom have glass in them, 
but are made of lattice-work, which is arranged for coolness, and also to give 
the inmates an opportunity of seeing without being seen. These windows 
are sometimes thrown out from the wall like our bay-windows, and thus 
afford a good opportunity of seeing what is going on in the street below. 
They are not hung like our ordinary sashes, but open and shut like doors. 
The window spoken of in the text was evidently on the street side of the 
house. So also was the window from which Michal saw David, (2 Sam. 



124 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Judges. 

vi, 16;) the window from which Joash shot the arrows, (2 Kings xiii, 17;) 
the window spoken of in Prov. vii, 6, and in Sol. Song ii, 9; and probably 
the windows which Daniel opened when he prayed. Dan. vi, 10. The win- 
dow from which Jezebel was hurled may have opened into the street or into 
the court, (2 Kings ix, 30-33 ;) so may also the window from which Euty- 
chus fell. Acts xx, 9. 

229.— EMBROIDERED GARMENTS. 
V, 30. To Sisera a prey of divers colors, a prey of divers 
colors of needlework, of divers colors of needlework on both 
sides. 

Bikmah, here rendered "needlework," means work made in different 
colors, whether by means of the needle or the loom. Precisely how this 
beautiful cloth was made is not now known. The Israelites were doubtless 
able to make figured cloth either with the needle or by weaving, since 
there is evidence from the Egyptian monuments that both methods were 
very ancient. The Israelites could therefore have learned the art in Egypt. 
Elegant and highly ornamented garments have ever been greatly prized by the 
Orientals. Babylon was anciently specially famous for their manufacture; 
wiience the expression, "Babylonish garments." Josh, vii, 21. In the sack- 
ing of cities or camps all these variegated cloths were considered highly 
desirable booty. Thus Deborah, in this fine battle-poem, represents the ladies 
who attended on the mother of Sisera as suggesting to her that her son was 
detained because of the valuable spoil he had taken. Gold thread was some- 
times used in the manufacture of beautiful garments. See Psa. xlv, 13, 14. 
The prophet Ezekiel refers to the fondness of the Assyrians for costly cloth- 
ing. See Ezek. xxiii, 12, and the note on that passage. 

230.— TORCHES. 

VII, 16. He divided the three hundred men into three com- 
panies, and he put a trumpet in every man's hand, with 
empty pitchers, and lamps within the pitchers. 

These "lamps" were probably torches, which could be quickly prepared 
for the use of the three hundred men. Lane says, that in the streets of 
Cairo the Agha of the police goes about at night accompanied by an execu- 
tioner and a torch bearer, the latter of whom carries with him a torch 
which is called "shealeh." "This torch burns, soon after it is lighted, with- 
out a flame, excepting when it is waved through the air, when it suddenly 
blazes forth: it therefore answers the same purpose as our dark lantern. 
The burning end is sometimes concealed in a small pot or jar, or covered 
with something else when not required to give light." — Manners and Customs 
of the Modern Egyptians, vol. i, p. 178. 



Judges.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



125 




44. — Camels' 1 Oknaments. 



231— ORNAMENTS. 
VIII, 21. The ornaments that were on their camels' necks. 
Saharonim, here translated ornaments, is in Isa. iii, 18, rendered "round 
tires like the moon." In Judges viii, 26, it is said that there were chains 
about the camels 1 necks. It thus 
appears that these camels had gold 
chains around their necks on which 
were the saharonim, or little moons, 
probably gold ornaments shaped like 
a moon either full or crescent. " Per- 
haps they were made in honor of the 
moon-faced Astarte, and intimated 
that they who bore them were placed 
under her protection. The taking 
away of these ornaments would thus be a removal of idolatrous objects.'' — 
Wordsworth. The Arabs of the present day are accustomed to hang orna- 
ments around the necks of their camels. Some are shaped like crescents, 
and are made of cowrie shells sewed on a band of leather or cloth. 

232.— BAAL-BERITH. 

VIII, 33. The children of Israel . . . made Baal-berith their god. 

Baal-berith, or the covenant Baal, was one of the numerous Baalim that 
the Israelites worshiped at different times. "We have no definite description 
of this god. A temple was built for him at Shechem, (Judges ix, 46,) but 
what were the special ceremonies we do not know. The worship is sup- 
posed to have been an imitation of the worship of Jehovah; an adulteration 
of that worship, in which Baal was put in the place of Jehovah. 

233.— BETROTHAL AND MARRIAGE. 
XIV, 7, S. He went down, and talked with the woman ; and 
she pleased Samson well. And after a time he returned to 
take her. 

The former part of this passage has reference, doubtless, to the betrothal; 
the latter part, to the marriage. About a year usually elapsed between 
betrothal and marriage, though this was not always the case. The expres- 
sion "after a time," literally, after days, is sometimes equivalent to a year. 

See also note on Matt, i, 18. 

234.— RIDDLES. 
XIV, 12. Samson said unto them, I will now put forth a rid- 
dle unto you. 

The Hebrews, in common with all Oriental people, were very fond of rid- 
dles, and amused themselves with them, especially at ordinary meals and 



126 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Judges. 

feasts. Even princes sometimes competed in their solution. The queen of 
Sheba tested Solomon's wisdom with them. See 1 Kings x, 1, where the 
plural of the word which is here rendered riddle is translated "hard ques- 
tions. 1 ' 

235.— GRINDING, A PUNISHMENT. 
XVI, 21. The Philistines . . . bound him with fetters of brass ; 
and. he did. grind in the prison house. 

Grinding a hand mill was the lowest kind of slave labor. Among the 
Greeks and Romans slaves were sometimes compelled to do this as a punish- 
ment. It was doubtless considered equally degrading in the days of 
Samson, and for this reason the Philistines condemned him to it after they 
destroyed his sight. Some have endeavored to illustrate this scene by a 
pictorial representation of the Hebrew giant harnessed in leather bands to a 
huge wooden lever which is connected with a mill! Nothing of the sort is 
referred to in the text. The " ass's mill " was probably the invention of a 
later age. and even if it existed in Samsons day, how could ho use it when 
he was " bound with fetters ? " He was simply compelled to do the degrading 
work of a woman or a slave at the ordinary hand-mill, which is described 
in the note on Matt, xxiv, 41. Jeremiah laments the same fate which befell 
the young men of his people. Lam. v, 1 3. 

236.— DAGON. 
XVI, 23. The lords of the Philistines gathered them together 
for to offer a great sacrifice unto Dagon their god. 

Dagon was the national god of the Philistines. The name is derived from 
dag, a fish. Dagon is the diminutive of dag, and signifies " little fish ; " not 
so much, however, in reference to size, as to the 
affection entertained for it; so that some would 
render it, ,; dear little fish." From the description 
given in 1 Sam. v, 4. the idol is supposed to have 
been a combination of the human form with that 
of a fish. "And when they arose early on the 
morrow morning, behold, Dagon was fallen upon 
his face to the ground before the ark of the 
Lord ; and the head of Dagon and both the palms 
of his hands were cut off upon the threshold; 
45,-Dagon. only the stump of Dagon was left to him." 

Omitting the words supplied by the translators ["the stump of"] and we 
find that the human part, consisting of the head and hands, was cut off, 
while dagon, or the fish part, remained. This description is corroborated by 
ancient traditions. The Babylonians believed that a being part man and 
part fish emerged from the Erythraean Sea, and appeared in Babylonia in the 




Judges.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 127 

early days of its history, and taught the people various arts necessary for 
their well-being. Representations of this fish-god have been found among 
the sculptures of Nineveh. The Philistian Dagon was of a similar character. 
The deity is supposed to have been intended to represent the vivifying and 
productive powers of nature. The fish was an appropriate image to be used 
for this purpose, by reason of its rapid and enormous multiplication. 

237— SPORTS WITNESSED FROM THE ROOF. 
XVI, 27. Now the house was full of men and women ; and 
all the lords of the Philistines were there ; and there were 
upon the roof about three thousand men and women, that 
beheld while Samson made sport. 

This building must have been of great size to have gathered on its flat 
roof three thousand people. The blind Samson probably "made sport" on 
one side of the inclosed court-yard, where the spectators on the roof and 
the crowds within could see him at the same time. In Algiers, on occasions 
of public festivity, the courtyard of the palace is covered with sand for the 
accommodation of the wrestlers, who are brought there to amuse the crowd. 
Dr. Shaw says, "I have often seen numbers of people diverted in this man- 
ner upon the roof of the dey's palace at Algiers." — Travels, p. 217. 

23§.— THE MIDDLE PILLARS. 
XVI, 29. Samson took hold of the two middle pillars upon 
which the house stood, and on which it was borne up. 

The two "middle pillars" here spoken of constituted the key of the entire 
building : these failing, the house would be destroyed. Pliny mentions two 
large theaters built of wood, and planned with such ingenuity that each of 
them depended on one hinge. Dr. Thomson suggests, from his observations 
of the peculiar topography of Gaza, that the building was erected on a side- 
hill, having a steep declivity, and in such a position that the removal of the 
central columns would precipitate the whole edifice down the hill in ruinous 
confusion. — Tlie Land and the Booh, vol. ii, p. 342. 



RUTH. 



239.— GLEANING. 
II, 3. She went, and came, and gleaned in the field after 
the reapers. 

The Israelites were commanded by their law to be merciful to the poor. 
The corners of the fields were not to be reaped. Lev. xix, 9 ; xxiii, 22. 
If a sheaf should be accidentallv left in the field it was to be allowed to 



128 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ruth. 

remain there. Deut. xxiv, 19. This grain in the corners, and these odd 
sheaves in the field, were for the poor. The story of Ruth is a most beauti- 
ful illustration of this law. Reference is supposed to be made to this custom 
in Job xxiv, 10, " They take away the sheaf from the hungry." 

240.— MUTUAL SALUTATIONS. 

II, 4. Behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and said unto the 
reapers, The Lord be with you. And they answered him, 
The Lord bless thee. 

These salutations are heard at this day in the East. The Psalmist prays 
that the haters of Zion may be like grass upon the house tops, and not like 
the grain which is reaped in the harvest field amid these mutual benedic- 
tions of employer and laborer. Psa. cxxix, 6-8. 

241.— VINEGAR— PARCHED CORN. 
II, 14. Boaz said unto her, At meal-time eome thou hither, 
and eat of the bread, and dip thy morsel in the vinegar. 
And she sat beside the reapers : and he reached her parched 
corn, and she did eat, and was sufficed, and left. 

1. Chomets — "vinegar " — was a beverage consisting generally of wine or 
strong drink turned sour. At present it is made in the East by pouring 
water on grape juice and leaving it to ferment. The Nazarites were for- 
bidden to drink it. Num. vi, 3. It was doubtless excessively sour. Prov. 
x, 26. It was similar to the posea of the Romans, which was a thin sour 
wine, unintoxicating, and used only by the poor. This is what is referred 
to under the name of vinegar in the narrative of the crucifixion of our 
Lord. See Matt, xxvii, 34, 48; Luke xxiii, 36; John xix, 29, 30. 

In Turkey grape juice is boiled from four to five hours, until it is reduced 
to one fourth the quantity put in. This is called Nardenk. It is of a dark 
color, has an agreeable sour-sweet taste, is turbid, and not intoxicating. It 
is sometimes used in the manner in which the chomets is said in the text to 
be used : the bread is dipped into it. It is thought by some to be the 
"vinegar" referred to ki this passage. — See BiUiotheca Sacra, vol. v, p. 289. 

2. The ''parched corn" is prepared from grains of wheat not yet fully 
ripe. These are sometimes roasted in a pan or on an iron plate ; sometimes 
the stalks are tied in small bundles, by which the ears are held in a blazing 
fire until roasted. Grain thus parched may be eaten with bread or without. 
In Lev. xxiii, 14, it is classed with bread and with green ears. Jesse sent 
an ephah of it and ten loaves of bread to his sons in the army, by the hand 
of David. 1 Sam. xvii, 17. Abigail took five measures of it as part of her 
present to David. 1 Sam. xxv, 18. David also received it with other 
provision from the hands of his friends when he was in want, after having 



Ruth.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 129 

fled from his rebellious son Absalom. 2 Sam. xvii, 28. In Lev. ii. 14, it is 
called "green ears of corn dried by the fire." It is a common article of 
food in Palestine and in Egypt to this day. 

242.— RUDE THRESHING. 

II, 17. So • she gleaned, in the field, until even, and beat out 
that she had gleaned. 

This is still done by the gleaners at the close of their day's work, sticks 
or stones being used as convenient though rude instruments for threshing 
the grain they have gathered. 

243.— THE TIME FOR WINNOWING. 

III, 2. Behold, he winnoweth barley to-night in the threshing 
floor. 

The evening was selected not only because it was cooler than the day, 
but because of the increase of wind which enabled the husbandmen to 
winnow more thoroughly. For the Oriental mode of winnowing see note 
on Amos ix, 9, and on Matt, iii, 12. 

244.— WATCHING THE GRAIN. 

Ill, 7. When Boaz had eaten and drunk, and his heart was 
merry, he went to lie down at the end of the heap of corn. 

The threshing floor being uninclosed, (see note on G-en 1, 10,) and exposed 
to robbers, it was necessary for the proprietor or some trusty servant to 
keep up a watch. We therefore find Boaz taking his supper and sleeping at 
the end of the heap of corn. This is still done by the proprietors of thresh- 
ing floors in Palestine. The grain is carefully watched until it is all 
threshed, winnowed, and garnered. 

245.— SIGN OF MARRIAGE— THE GOEL. 
Ill, 9. Spread therefore thy skirt over thine handmaid; for 
thou art a near kinsman, 

1. The expression "spread thy skirt" imports protection, and here 
signifies protection of a conjugal character. When marriages are solem- 
nized among the Jews the man throws the skirt of his talith or robe over his 
wife and covers her head with it. 

2. God, "kinsman," is, literally, "one who redeems." When a Hebrew 
was obliged to sell his inheritance on account of poverty, it was the duty of 
the nearest relative to redeem it for him. Lev. xxv, 25. Hence the word 
goel came to signify kinsman. The god also became the recipient of 
property which had been unjustly kept from a deceased kinsman. Num. 
v, 6-8. It was likewise his duty to avenge the blood of his next of kin by 
seeking the life of the murderer. G-en. ix, 5, 6; Num. xxxv, 19; 2 Sam. xiy, 7. 



130 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Ruth. 



Some have supposed from the association of the goel with marriage, as in 
this history of Ruth, that it was his duty to marry the widow of a decease! 
kinsman: but according to Dent, xxv, 5, this &\\ty was only obligatory on 
a brother-in-law, which relation to Ruth was certainly not sustained bv 
Boaz. Nor is there any evidence that it was sustained by the unnamed 
kinsman spoken of by Boaz in verse 12. Had this nearer 'goel been a 
brother-in-law Boaz would not have begun by asking him to redeem the 
property, (Ruth iv, 4,) but would instantly have demanded that he should 
marry the widow, on refusing to do which he was liable to judicial disgrace. 
Deut. xxv, 7-10. But in the case of the goel it was not until he redeemed the 
property of his relative, dying without a son, that he was under obligation 
to marry the w dow. As Winer says, " The latter was to him the consequence 
of the former and not the reverse, as in the case of the levir, [brother-in-law.] 
Should he refuse to take possession of the property he was under no obligation 
to marry the widow. In so refusing he incurred no judicial disgrace, because 
he did not fail to discharge a duty, but only relinquished a right. The law 
had expressly imposed the duty of marriage on the levir only, and beyond 
him the obligation did not extend." — Realworterbuch, 5. v. Ruth. 

Boaz had no right to redeem the "property until the nearer kinsman 
refused, and neither he nor the other kinsman was under any obligation to 
do it; but having once assumed the redemption, the one thus exercising his 
right was by that act under obligation to marry the widow. 




46.— OuTKR Gabmkxt of Women. 



246.— THE VAIL. 

Ill, 15. Also he said, Bring the vail 
that thou hast upon thee, and. hold, 
it. And when she held it, he meas- 
ured six measures of barley, and 
laid it on her. 

Miipachath, vail, is called mantle in 
Isaiah iii, 22, and some lexicographers 
assert that this is its meaning; that it does 
not signify what is commonly understood 
by a vail, but simply a large outer mantle 
or cloak, in one corner of which Ruth re- 
ceived the barley. Others, however, and 
3|| among them Dr. Kitto, insist that a vail is 
g^ meant ; one made of strong cotton cloth and 
used for out-door wear. 

The engraving represents a large vail, or 
mantle, which is worn by Egyptian women 
at the present day. It is called m Hay eh. 



Buth.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 131 

247.— THE SIGN OF THE SHOE. 
IV, 7. Now this was tine manner in former time in Israel 
concerning redeeming and. concerning changing, for to eon- 
firm all things ; a man plucked off his shoe, and gave it to 
his neighbor : and this was a testimony in Israel. 

There was no divine law ordaining this ; it was simply an ancient custom 
It is not to be confounded with the law in reference to levirate marriages in 
Deut. xxv, 7-10. It probably originated from the fact that the right to 
tread the soil belonged only to the owner of it, and hence the transfer of a 
sandal was a very appropriate representation of the transfer of property. 
Allusion to this custom is doubtless intended in Psa. lx, 8, " Over Edom 
will I cast out my shoe ; " that is, I will transfer it to myself. The custom 
was prevalent among the Indians and ancient Germans, and is said still 
to exist in the East. 



I. SAMUEL. 



24§.— THE SEAT OF JUDGMENT. 

I, 9. Now Eli the priest sat upon a seat by a post of the tem- 
ple of the Lord. 

In some parts of the East a seat is placed in the court-yard, where the 
master of the house may sit and give judgment on all domestic affairs. This 
seat is usually placed in some shady part of the court, against a wall or 
column. Thus in the text, EH " sat upon a seat by a post." So David sat 
upon a seat by the wall. 1 Sam. xx, 25. These seats probably had no backs, 
and were therefore placed near the post or wall for support. Thus we are 
told that Eli fell backward from his seat at the gate and died. 1 Sam. iv, 18. 
The Assyrian monuments have many representations of such backless 
seats. 

249.— THE HORN. 

II, 1. Hannah prayed, and said, My heart rejoieeth in the 
Lord, mine horn is exalted in the Lord. 

The horn is an emblem of power and of dignity ; the exaltation of the 
horn therefore expresses elevation of privilege and honor, and its depression 
represents the opposite. See also 1 Sam. ii, 10 ; Job xvi, 15 : Psa. lxxv, 4, 5; 
lxxxix, 17, 24; xcii, 10; cxii, 9. The Druse ladies on Mount Lebanon wear 
a horn as a part of their head-dress. These horns are made of various 
materials according to the wealth of the owner: dough, pasteboard, pottery, 
tin, silver, and gold. They vary in length from six inches to two feet and a- 
half, and are three or four inches in diameter at the base, tapering ahr ost to 
a point. The vail is thrown over the horn, and from it flows gracefully 



132 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[I Samuel. 



down. When once put on, the horn is never taken off; it remains on the 
wearer's head by day and at night, through sickness and health, even down 
to death. 

It has been supposed by many writers that the passages above cited all 
refer to this article of costume, and it is frequently spoken of as an illustra- 
tion of them. It should be borne in mind, however, that some of the most 
judicious critics deny all such reference, there being no evidence that the 
horn was ever used by the Hebrews. It appears rather to be a fashion of 
comparatively modern date. As good an interpretation of the above pas- 
sages can be given by supposing the horn to refer to the natural weapon of 
beasts, and to be used in a figurative sense, as by imagining it to refer to an 
artificial ornament for human beings. 

250.— TALISMANIC IMAGES. 

VI, 5. Wherefore ye shall make images of your emerods, 
and. images of your mice that mar the land. 

These were doubtless talismanic figures made according to some occult 
laws of astrology. Such talismans are very ancient. They were supposed 
to cure diseases and to ward off evils. The learned Gregory thinks that 
they originated in false views entertained by the Gentiles concerning the 
brazen serpent. His theory is, that their astrologers, finding that among 
the Israelites the bite of serpents had been cured by the image of a serpent, 
concluded that all sorts of evils might be remedied, provided corresponding 
images were made under proper astrological conditions. "Whether this theory 
be correct or not, there is abundant evidence of the ancient prevalence of 
this superstition. It still exists in India. Talismans, generally of silver, are 
carried to the heathen temples. These images represent as nearly as may be 
the diseases or the special troubles under which the offerers suffer. It is 

supposed that the gods 
will be propitious on 
seeing them, and give 
the sufferer the relief 
sought. Roberts 
( Oriental Illustrations, 
pp. 158. 159) has cuts 
of some of these little 
images which came 
into his possession by 
the gift of a friend. 
"We here insert three 
of these, representing 
Images of eyes, ears, mouth, 






47. — Talismanic Images. 



a deformed boj r , an infant, and an old man 
nose, and hands are also hung up in the temples. 



I Samuel.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



133 



Some commentators suppose that "'the blind and the lame.'' mentioned in 
2 Sam. v, 6-8, were talismanic images set up in the fort by the Jebusites for 
their protection. 

251.— HELMETS— CUIRASSES. 
XVII, 5. He had a helmet of brass upon his head, and he 
was armed with a coat of mail. 

1. In the earliest times helmets were made of osier or rushes, and were 
in the form of bee-hives or skull-caps. The skin a of the heads of animals 
were sometimes used. Various other materials were employed at different, 
times. The ancient Egyptian helmet was usually made of linen cloth quilted. 
It was thick and well padded, sometimes coming down to the shoulder, and 
sometimes only a little below the ear. The cloth used was colored green, or 
red, or black. The helmet had no crest, 
but the summit was ah obtuse point orna- 
mented with two tassels. The Assyrian 
helmet was a cap of iron terminating 
above in a point, and sometimes furnished 
with flaps, covered with metal scales and 
protecting the neck. The Philistine hel- 
met, as represented on ancient monu- 
ments, was of unique form. From the 
head-band there arose curved lines, by 
which the outline of the helmet was hol- 
lowed on the sides and rounded on top. 
Goliath's helmet was doubtless of this 48.— Ancient Helmets. 

shape, and, being made of brass, must 
have presented a beautiful appearance. 
The form of the Hebrew helmets is un- 
known ; but they probably did not vary 
widely from the Egyptian. As is .seen 
in verse 38 they were sometimes made 
of brass. The helmet is also mentioned 
in 2 Chron. xxvi, 14; Jer. xlvi, 4; Ezek. 
xxi.i, 24; xxvii, 10; xxxviii, 5. 

2. For the body, the skins of beasts 
were probably the earliest protection in 
battle. Felt or quilted linen was also 
used subsequently. The ancient Egyp- 
tians had horizontal rows of metal 
plates well secured by brass pins. The 
ancient Assyrians had scales of iron 
fastened on felt or linerj. iron rings 
9 





Egyptian Cuirass. 



134 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[I Samuel. 



closely locked together were likewise used by different nations. Scales 
made of small pieces of horn or hoof were also used. Sometimes a very 
serviceable armor was made of small plates of metal, each having a button 
and a slit, fitting into the corresponding slit and button of the plate next to 
it. It is supposed that Ahab had on armor of this sort when he was slain; 
the "joints of the harness " being the grooves or slits in the metallic plates, 
or the place between, where they did not overlap. 1 Kings xxii, 34; 2 Chron. 
xviii. 33. Goliath's " coat of mail " was scale armor, (shiryon kaskassim : 
" armor of scales.") This kind of armor consisted of metallic scales 
rounded at the bottom and squared at the top, and sewed on linen or felt. 
The Philistine corselet covered the chest only. On the bas-relief at Nineveh 
are seen warriors with coats of scale armor which descend to the knees or 
ankles. In one of the palaces Mr. Layard discovered a number of the scales 
used for this armor. Each scale was of iron two to three inches long, 
rounded at one end and squared at the other, with a raised or embossed line 
in the center, and some were inlaid with copper. At a later period the 
Assyrian armor was made of smaller scales, which were pointed and orna- 
mented with raised figures, and the coat of mail readied no lower than the 
waist. 

In several passages shiryon is rendered in our version ' ; habergeon." See 
2 Chron. xxvi, 14; Neh. iv, 16. 

The lorica of the Romans and the thorax of the Greeks — rendered "breast- 
plate" in Eph. vi, 14 and 1 Thess. v. 8 — were scale armor covering breast 
and back. 

252.— GREAVES— JAVELIN. 

XVII, 6. He had. greaves of brass upon his legs, and a target 
of brass between his shoulders. 

1. Greaves were coverings for the legs. There are none represented on 
the Egyptian monuments, but they are seen on the Assyrian sculptures 
They were of leather, wood, or, as in the case of Goliath, 
of brass, and were bound by thongs around the calves 
and above the ankles. 

2. Kidon, here rendered "target," is translated by the 

Word "shield" in verse 45 of this chapter, and in Job 

Xxxix, 23; "spear" iu Josh, viii, 18, 26; Job xli, 29; 

Jer. vi, 23 ; and "lance " in Jer 1, 42. It was probably a 

light javelin, which could be easily hurled at an enemy. 

Some suppose it to have been decorated with a flag, like 

50.— Geeave. ti ie lances of the Polish lancers. It would seem from 

this verse that when not in actual use it was carried on the back; for this 

is the meaning of " between the shoulders." It was probably slung across 

-he shoulders by means of a leathern strap. 




I Samuel.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



135 



253.— SPEAR— LARGE SHIELD. 

XVII, 7. The staff of his spear was like a weaver's beam ; 
and. his spear's head weighed six hundred shekels of iron : 
and one bearing a shield went before him. 

1. The chanith, "spear," was a heavier weapon than the Tcidon. See pre- 
ceding note. The word is rendered both "spear," and "javelin." It was 
the chanith with which Sanl endeavored to strike David, (1 Sam. xviii, 10, 11 ; 
xix, 9, 10,) and which at another time he aimed at Jonathan. 1 Sam. xx, 33. 
This heavy spear had at its lower extremity a point by which it could be 
stuck into the ground. It was in this way that the position of Saul was 
marked while he lay sleeping in the camp at Hachilah, his spear being his 
standard. 1 Sam. xxvi, 7. This lower point of the spear was almost as formi- 
dable as the head. The Arab riders of to-day sometimes use it to strike 
backward at pursuers, and it was with this " hinder end of the spear " that 
Abner killed Asahel. 2 Sam. ii, 23. The size of Goliath's chanith is ex- 
pressed by the description of the staff and of the head ; ihe latter being of 
iron, in contrast to the brass head of his kidon, and to his brazen helmet, 
cuirass, and greaves. See also note on Jer. xlvi, 4. 

2. The tsinnah, "shield," was the largest kind of shield, and was designed 
to protect the whole body. This shield, as represented on the Egyptian 
monuments, was about five feet high, with a 
pointed arch above and square below. The 

great shield of 
the Assyrians, as 
is shown by their 
sculptures, was 
taller, and of an 
oblong shape, and 
sometimes had at 
the top an inward 
curve. The large 
shields were gen- 
erally made of 
wicker work or of 
light wood cov- 
ered with hides. They were grasped by a 
handle of wood or of leather. Goliath had a 
man to bear his great shield before him. In the 
Assyrian sculptures there are representations of 
warriors fighting in this manner, with men 
before them holding the large shields, with the bottom resting on the ground, 





51. — Egyptian Laege Shield. 



52. — Assyrian Laege Shield. 



136 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Samuel. 

thus forming movable breastworks. The great shields of the Philistines 
seem to have been of circular shape. 

The beauty of the figure used in Psa. v, 12 is heightened by the iact that 
the tsinnah is the shield there spoken of. The Lord uses the great buckler 
for the protection of his people. 

254.— CHEESE— PLEDGE. 
XVII IS Carry these ten cheeses unto the captain of their 
thousand, and look how thy brethren fare, and take their 
pledge. 

1. The cheese used in the East is made up into small cakes, strongly 
salted soft when new, but soon becoming dry and hard. It is greatly 
inferior to either English or Dutch cheese. Burckhardt speaks of a kind of 
cheese made of coagulated buttermilk, which is dried until it becomes quite 
hard and is then ground. The Arabs eat it mixed with butter. 

2 'By the expression "take their pledge," is probably meant, Bring some 
token from them that they are yet alive and well. Roberts says that 
amon- the Hindoos a person in a distant country sends to those who are 
interested in his welfare a ring, a lock of hair, or a piece of his nail, as a 
"pledge " of his health and prosperity. 

255 # _THE SWORD. 
XVII, 39. David girded his sword upon his armor, and he as- 
sayed to go. . 

The sword was one of the earliest weapons in use. The Egyptian sword 

was short and straight, two and a halt 
to three feet long, and double-edged. 
The handle was plain and hollowed in 
the center, the better to afford a firm 
grasp. The Hebrew sword probably re- 
-Egyptian Swokds. sembled it. 

256.— STAFF— SCRIP— SLING. 
XVII, 40. He took his staff in his hand and chose . ^m JWe 

hand. r . , 

1 The shepherd carries a staff which he holds to the center. It is used 
not only as a support in eUmbtog hills, hut for the purpose of taaUng ; bus , 
and low brushwood in which the flocks stray, and where snak s and other 
reptiles abound. It may also be used for correctmg he shepherd Wg 
and keeping them in subjection. Thus Goliath says, Am I a dog, that 




I Samuel.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



137 



thou cornest to me with staves ? " verse 43. This useful accompaniment of 
shepherd -life is mentioned in Gen. xxxii, 10; Psa. xxiii, 4; Micah vii, 14, 
and in other passages. 

2. The scrip was a bag of leather thrown over the shoulder, and used by 
shepherds and travelers to carry provision. It is still used by Eastern 
shepherds, and is made of the skin of a kid stripped off whole and tanned. 
This is the only passage in the Old Testament where it is mentioned, but 
reference is made to it in several places in the New Testament. Matt, x, 10; 
Mark vi, 8; Luke ix, 3; x, 4 ; xxii, 35, 36. 

3. The sling was made of leather, or of plaited work of wool, rushes, hair, 
or sinews. The middle part, where the stone lay, was called the cup, {caph,) 
because of its cup-like depression. It was 
wider than the ends, but the sling gradually 
narrowed toward the extremities, so that it 
could be easily handled. In the Egyptian 
sling, which probably was the same as the 
Hebrew, there was a loop at one end which 
was placed over the thumb, in order to retain 
the weapon when the stone was hurled and 
the other end became free. The sling was 
used by shepherds to keep the beasts of prey 
from the flock, and also to keep the sheep from 
straying. Husbandmen likewise used it to 
drive away birds from the fields of corn. In 
war it was a formidable weapon in skillful 
hands. The Egyptian slinger carried a bag of 
round stones depending fiom his shoulder, as David did. The Assyrians, 
however, according to their sculptures, had lying at their feet a heap of 
pebbles, which they picked up as they were needed. In using the sling, the 
stone was put into the broad hollowed part, the ends were grasped together 
in the hand, and after a few whirls around the head to give impetus, the 
stone was discharged, frequently with force enough to penetrate helmet or 
shield. 

A weapon so peculiar in its formation and so great in its power was 
appropriately referred to as an illustration of swift and certain destruction. 
Thus Abigail said to David, "The souls of thine enemies, them shall he sling, 
out, as out of the middle of a sling." 1 Sam. xxv, 29. Thus the Lord said 
to Jeremiah, " I will sling out the inhabitants of the land at this once, and 
will distress them." Jer. x, 18. The figure in both these passages is drawn, 
not from the destructive power of the sling, but from the ease and rapidity 
with which, by a practiced hand, the stone was hurled from it. 

The Benjamites were so skillful in the use of this weapon that some of 




138 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Samuel. 

them "could sling stones at a hair, and not miss." Judges xx, 16. The 
youthful David showed great skill, since he hurled the pebble with such aim 
and force that it smote the giant in the forehead and brought him to the 
ground. Verses 49, 50. 

257.— PRINCELY ROBES. 

XVIII, 4. Jonathan stripped himself of the robe that was up- 
on him, and gave it to David, and his garments, even to his 
sword, and to his bow, and to his girdle. 

It is considered in the East a special mark of respect to be presented by 
a prince with some of the garments he has for his own wearing. The gift 
of a girdle is a token of the greatest confidence and affection, and is very 
highly prized. Joab expressed his intense desire for the death of Absalom 
by his willingness to give a girdle to the man who would murder him. 
2 Sam. xviii, 11. Morier gives a curious instance of the estimation placed 
on the possession of garments which had once covered, and of weapons 
which had once adorned, the person of royalty. He says that when the 
treaty was made between Russia and Persia iu 1814, the Persian plenipo- 
tentiary, who had been honored by various gifts of weapons and clothing 
from his sovereign, designated himself in the preamble of the treaty as 
"endowed with the special gifts of the Monarch, lord of the dagger set in 
jewels, of the sword adorned with gems, and of the shawl-coat already 
worn." — Second Journey through Persia, etc.. p. 299. It was in this way that 
the shepherd-warrior was honored by Jonathan. See also note on Esther 
vi, 8. 

25§.— JOY IN VICTORY— SHALISHIM. 

XVIII, 6. It came to pass as they came, when David was 
returned from the slaughter of the Philistine, that the women 
came out of all cities of Israel, singing and dancing, to meet 
king Saul, with tabrets, with joy, and with instruments of 
music. 

L It was customary for the women to express their delight in victory by 
songs and music, and dancing in the presence of the conquerors. See Exod. 
xv, 20 ; Judges xi, 34. 

2. Precisely what is meant by shalishim, which in our version is rendered 
"instruments of music," is not known. From the construction of the word 
there was evidently a triple arrangement of some sort in the formation of 
the shalishim. The margin of our English Bibles has "three-stringed instru- 
ments." They may have been harps of three strings, or of triangular shape ; 
but most authorities now agree in supposing them to have been triangles. 
These instruments of percussion are said to have originated in Syria, and if 
so may have been known to the ancient Hebrews. They were well adapted 
for the ringing music of a military triumph. 



I Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 139 

259.— RESPONSIVE SINGING. 

XVIII, 7. The women answered one another as they played, 
and said, Saul hath slain his thousands, and David his ten 
thousands. 

One part of the women probably sang, "Saul hath slain his thousands," 
and the others responded, "and David his ten thousands." This responsive 
chorus-singing is very ancient. Over four hundred years before this Miriam 
had led the women in the responsive chorus of victory on the occasion of the 
destruction of Pharaoh's army, the men and women alternating in their song. 
Exod. xv, 21. It is supposed to have been an Egyptian custom. See also 
Ezra hi, 11; Isa. vi, 3; Rev. iv, 8-11; v, 9-14. 

260.— FLEEING FROM THE DART. 

XIX, 10. Saul sought to smite David even to the wall with 
the javelin ; but he slipped away out of Saul's presence, and 
he smote the javelin into the wall: and David fled, and escaped 
that night. 

According to an ancient Asiatic custom, when a dart was thrown at a freed- 
man, and he escaped from it by flight, he was thereby absolved from all 
allegiance to his master. Thus Saul by his murderous fury gave complete 
liberty to David, whose subsequent acts of war against the king could not 
be considered rebellion. From that hour he -was no longer a subject of King 
Saul. — See Kitto's Cyclopcedia of Biblical Literature, vol. i, p. 225. 

261.— USE OF THE TERM NAKED. 
XIX, 24. He stripped off his clothes also, and prophesied before 
Samuel in like manner, and lay down naked all that day and 
all that night. 

This does not mean absolutely without any clothing. A person was called 
naked whose outer garments were thrown aside, leaving nothing but the 
tunic and girdle. See note on John xix, 23. Thus Isaiah was naked by 
simply removing his sackcloth mantle. Isa. xx, 2. This is also the meaning 
of "flee away naked" in Amos ii, 16. The young man who followed Jesus 
at the time of his arrest was probably "naked" in this sense. Mark 
xiv, 51, 52. Peter was also "naked" in the same way at the time he cast 
himself into the sea to meet the Lord. John xxi, 7. Compare 2 Sara, 
vi, 14, 20. 

262.— RELATIVES CURSED. 
XX 30. Saul's anger was kindled against Jonathan, and he 
said unto him, Thou son of the perverse rebellious woman. 

This is a favorite Oriental mode of abuse. It is supposed that an indignity 
offered to a man's mother will give him greater pain than one offered to him- 
self. "Strike me" said the servant of Mungo Park, "but do not curse my 



140 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. d Samuel. 

mother." Sir W. Ouseley tells of a man who, seeking for wine, put to his 
lips a bottle of some nauseous medicine, and immediately cursed, not the man 
who made the disgusting draught, but all the female relatives in whose wel- 
fare he had the greatest interest; his wives, mother, daughters, and 
sisters. — Burder, Oriental Customs, No. 312. Professor Hackett, having 
incautiously approached a large flock of sheep for the purpose of getting a 
better view, was assailed by the three women who were* watching them, 
with "a volley of words almost terrific." They cursed his father, his 
mother, his grandfather, and all his ancestors. — Illustrations of Scripture, 
p. 106. 

263.— VALUABLES WRAPPED IN CLOTHES. 

XXI, 9. The priest said, The sword of Goliath the Philistine, 
whom. thou, slewest in the valley of Klah, behold, it is here 
wrapped in a cloth behind the ephod. 

It is customary to wrap in cloths all articles which are esteemed specially 
valuable or sacred. Sacred books are inclosed in rich cases of brocade silk 
or costly velvet. Harmer suggests that the simlah, "cloth," in which the 
sword of Goliath was wrapped, may have been a part of some magnificent 
dress of David. — Observations, vol. ii, p. 517. 

Money was sometimes put aside in a similar way. The unfaithful servant 
laid up his lord's money in a napkin, or handkerchief. See Luke xix, 20. 

264.— THE SPEAKER MENTIONED FIRST. 
XXIY, 12. The Lord judge between me and thee, and the 
Lord avenge me of thee : but mine hand shall not be upon 
thee. 

With us it is a marked want of etiquette for the speaker to mention him- 
self first, especially when speaking to or of those of superior rank or posi- 
tion. Chardin, however, says that among the Persians it is customary for the 
speaker to name himself first. From this text it seems to have been con- 
sidered perfectly respectful in the days of David, and we have instances 
more ancient still. When Ephron the Hittite was bargaining with Abmhatn 
for the sale of the cave of Machpelah he said, "What is that betwixt me and 
thee?" Gen. xxiii, 15. So also Sarai said to her husband Abram, u The 
Lord judge between me and thee." Gen. xvi, 5. So Laban said to Jacob, 
"The Lord watch between me and thee." Gen. xxxi, 49. 

265.— HOUSES OF THE DEAD. 

XXV, 1. Samuel died ; and all the Israelites were gathered 
together, and lamented him, and buried him in his house at 
Ramah. 

Some commentators assert that Samuel was placed in a tomb erected in 
the house he occupied during his life, or in its court. Of this, however, there 



I Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 141 

is no evidence. Long before Samuel's time the grave was spoken of as 
"the house appointed for all living." See Job xxx, 23. So afterward Joab 
"was buried in his own house in the wilderness." 1 Kings ii, 34. It is 
much more probable that a tomb for the dead should be called a house than 
that a dwelling-place built for the living should be used as a tomb. An 
American missionary in Syria says that at Deir el Kamr, on Mount Lebanon, 
he found a number of small solid stone buildings, having neither doors nor 
windows. These were the "houses of the dead." It was necessary to open 
the dead walls every time an interment took place. — Jowett's Researches, 
p. 207. 

In India it is quite common to build a house in a retired place over the 
remains of the dead, where also the rest of the family, when they die, are 
interred. In some of these houses the funeral car, or palanquin in which the 
body was borne to its burial, is suspended from the ceiling. Great pains are 
taken to keep these houses of the dead in good repair, and some of them 
are built in a most magnificent manner. 

266.— CHIEFTAIN'S SPEAR— CRUSE. 
XXVI, llT Take thou now the spear that is at his bolster, and 
the cruse of water, and let us go. 

1. The spear here spoken of is the chanith, already described in the note 
on chap, xvii, 7. In the Arab encampments of the present day the sheikh's 
tent is always recognized by a tall spear stuck in the ground in front of it ; 
and the place where the sheikh reclines to rest when halting on a march is 
designated in like manner. 

2. It is not known what was the precise shape of the cruse, (tsappachath,) 
or the material of which it consisted. Some suppose it to have been made 
of iron plates shaped like a shallow cup or bowl. The vessel at present 
used in the East for the purposes of a cruse or flask is globular in shape, 
and is made of blue porous clay. It is nine inches in diameter, with a neck 
three inches long. At the lower part is a small handle, and opposite is a 
straight spout having an orifice about the size of a straw, through which 
water is sucked. The tsappachath is spoken of in the Bible as a receptacle 
for oil, (1 Kings xvii, 12,) and also for water. See text and 1 Kings xix, 6. 

The " cruse" mentioned in 1 Kings xiv, 3, and the one in 2 Kings ii, 20, 
are different vessels from the cruse of this text, and the words themselves 
are different in the original. See notes on those passages. 



142 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[II Samuel. 



II. SAMUEL. 

267.— ARMLETS. 
I, 10. I took . . . the bracelet that was on his arm. 

Etsadah, "bracelet," is, according to Gesenius, more properly an anklet than 
a bracelet ; yet as it is here spoken of in connection with the arm it doubt- 
less means an armlet. The word occurs also 
in Num. xxxi, 50, where it is associated with 
tsamid, (bracelet,) and is rendered " chains." 
Saul's armlet is supposed to have been a part 
of the insignia of his royalty. Egyptian mon- 
archs are often represented on the monuments 
wearing armlets and bracelets. The Persian 
kings often wore them, and they are still com- 
mon among Oriental sovereigns, many of them 
being elaborately wrought and richly orna- 
mented with jewels. From Sol. Song viii, 6, it 
appears that the signet was sometimes placed 
in the armlet : "Asa seal upon thine arm." 




55. — Egyptian Abmlets. 



268.— RECESS IN GATEWAY. 
Joab took him aside in the gate to speak with 



him 



III, 27. 
quietly. 

The expression " in the gate," is literally in the midst of the gate, and 
probably refers to some dark corner in the vaulted gateway where two 
persons might retire and converse unseen. To some such recess Joab 
invited Abner, avowedly for conversation, but really to kill him. 



269.— BEDS FOR BIERS. 
Ill, 31. Rend, your clothes, and gird you with sackcloth, and 
mourn before Abner. And king David himself followed the 
bier. 

Mittah, "bier," would be better rendered by bed. Persons of distinction 
were sometimes carried to the grave on their beds. Josephus describes mi- 
nutely the preparations which, were made by Archelaus for the funeral of his 
father Herod. The body was placed on a gilded bed, which was richly 
adorned with precious stones. — Antiquities, book xvii, chapter 8, § 3. 



270.— PRISONERS FETTERED. 
Ill, 34. Thy hands were not bound, nor thy feet put into fetters. 

Strigelius supposes that David meant, by using this language, to distinguish 
Abner from those criminals who are carried to execution with their hands 



n Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 143 

tied behind them ; and from soldiers who are taken captive in war, and have 
their feet fastened by fetters to prevent their running away. 
For a description of fetters see note on 2 Kings xxv, 7. 

271.— STORING AND GRINDING GRAIN. 
IV, 6. They eame thither into the midst of the house, as though 
they would have fetched wheat. 

Harmer (Observations, vol. i, p. 435) suggests that the pretense of these 
men that they went into the house for wheat, was rendered plausible by the 
fact that it was necessary to obtain the grain in the afternoon in order to 
have it ready for grinding early the next morning, according to daily custom. 
All suspicion of their murderous intention was thus avoided. Ishbosheth 
was taking his usual daily nap after the noon meal, (verse 5.) They went 
toward the place where the grain was stored, and thus gained access to the 
apartment of the sleeping king and murdered him. 

272.— THE SISTRUM. 
VI, 5. David and all the house of Israel played before the 
Lord on all manner of instruments made of fir wood, even on 
. . . cornets. 

This is the only place where the word menaanim appears. 
The instrument it represents bore no resemblance to a cor- 
net or to any other wind instrument. Gesenius describes it 
as "a musical instrument or rattle, which gave a tinkling 
sound on being shaken." He supposes it to have been the 
ancient sistrum. Other authorities agree with, this inter- 
pretation, though some discard it. The sistrum was used 
in the worship of the ancient Egyptians. It was " generally 
from eight to sixteen or eighteen inches in length, and en- 
tirely of bronze or brass. It was sometimes inlaid with 
silvergilt, or otherwise ornamented, and, being held upright, 
was shaken, the rings moving to and fro upon the brass." 
— Kitto. 

The other instruments named in this verse are described in 
other places. See Index. 56— Sistkum. 

273.— THE BEARD CUT OFF. 
X, 4. Wherefore Hanun took David's servants, and shaved off 
the one half of their beards. 

According to Oriental sentiment a greater indignity could not have been 
put upon them. The beard is considered a symbol of manhood, and, in some 
places, of freedom — slaves being compelled to shave their beards in token of 
servitude. By shaving half their beard Hanun not only treated David's 




144 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Samuel. 

embassadors with contempt, but made them objects of ridicule. The beard 
is usually kept with care and neatness ; and thus when David feigned mad- 
ness in the presence of Achish, king of G-ath, he " let his spittle fall down 
upon his beard," which convinced the beholders that he must be bereft of 
his senses. 1 Sam. xxi, 13. So disgraceful is it considered to have the 
beard cut off, that some of the Orientals would prefer death to such a 
punishment. Niebuhr, in his Description of Arabia, relates that in the year 
1764, Kerim Kahn, one of the three rebels who at that time desired to 
obtain dominion over Persia, sent embassadors to Mir Mahenna, the prince 
of a little independent territory on the Persian Gulf, to demand a large 
tribute, and threatened to come to him with his army if he did not conduct 
himself as an obedient subject. Mahenna, however, treated the embassadors 
with great contempt, which was especially marked in cutting off their 
beards. Upon hearing of this, Kerim Kahn was so indignant that he sent 
a large army which subdued the territory. 

274.— SPRING, THE SEASON FOR WAR. 
XI, 1. It came to pass, after the year was expired, at trie time 
when kings go forth. 

" After the year was expired " is literally " at the return of the year," that 
is, in the spring. This was the time of the year for the commencement or 
renewal of military movements, the season for severe storms being over. 

275.— PROMENADE ON THE ROOF. 

XI, 2. It came to pass in an eveningtide, that David arose 
from off his bed, and walked upon the roof of the king's 
house : and from the roof he saw a woman washing herself. 

1. After his customary afternoon rest had been taken, David walked on 
the flat roof of his palace. In the cool of the evening the roofs of the houses 
are occupied by family groups who go there for air and exercise. In Dan. 
iv, 29 we have an account of the walk of another king. Instead of walked in 
the palace, the marginal reading is, upon the palace. It was on the 
roof that Nebuchadnezzar walked, and from there he obtained that view of 
his great city which lifted his heart with pride and made him forget God. 

2. The bath in which Bathsheba was washing was in the court-yard, 
secluded from all ordinary observation, but yet visible from the palace 
roof. 

276.— ANIMALS PETTED. 

XII, 3. It grew up together with him, and with his children ; 
it did eat of his own meat, and drank of his own eup, and 
lay in his bosom, and was unto him as a daughter. 

There is a beautiful touch of nature about this ; for though uttered in a 
parable the words are in truthful accordance with Eastern manners. 



n Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 145 

Bochart says that anciently not only lambs, but other animals, were by many 
persons allowed to eat with them at their tables, and to lie with them in 
their beds. The Arabs of to-day keep pet-lambs as we keep lap-dogs. 

277.— FASTING FOR BEREAVEMENT. 

XII, 21. Then said, his servants unto him, What thing is this 
that thou hast done ? thou didst fast and weep for the child, 
while it was alive ; but when the child was dead, thou didst 
rise and eat bread. 

What astonished the servants of David was, that their master should act 
so contrary to old-established customs of mourning in time of bereavement. 
Sir John Chardin says. " The practice of the East is to leave a relation of 
the deceased person to weep and mourn, till on the third or fourth day at 
furthest the relatives and friends go to see him, cause him to eat, lead him 
to a bath, and cause him to put on new vestments, he having before thrown 
himself on the ground." — Harmer, Observations, vol. iv, p. 424. David, on 
the contrary, changed his apparel and ate food as soon as he learned of the 
death of the boy. 

278.— COVERING THE HEAD. 

XV, 30. David went up by the ascent of mount Olivet, and 
wept as he went up, and had his head covered, and he went 
up barefoot. 

Covering the head, as well as uncovering the feet, (see note on Deut. xxv, 10,) 
was a token of great distress. It was probably done by drawing a fold 
of the outer garment over the head. When Haman mourned over his great 
discomfiture his head was covered. Esther vi, 12. Jeremiah pathetically 
represents the plowmen as mourning in this way because of the severe 
drought. "Because the ground is chapped, for there was no rain in the 
earth, the plowmen were ashamed, they covered their heads." Jer. xiv. 4. 

27».— EARTH ON THE HEAD. 
XV, 32. Hushai the Archite came to meet him with his coat 
rent, and earth upon his head. 

His rent coat signified mourning, (see note on Gen. xxxvii, 34,) as did 
also the earth on his head. In the British Museum is a tombstone from 
Abydos, on which is a representation of a funeral procession, the mourners 
in which show their grief by throwing dust on their heads. There was an 
ancient tradition among the Egyptians that, in the infancy of their history as 
a people, their god Nonm had taught their fathers that they were but clay or 
dust. The practice of putting dust on their heads is supposed to have been 
originally designed to be symbolical of their origin from dust, and to convey 
the idea of their humility in view of that fact. We find frequent scriptural 
reference to the custom. When the Israelites were defeated at Ai, Joshu i 



146 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [H Samuel. 

and the elders "put dust upon their heads/' Josh, v'i, 6. The Benjamite 
who brought to Eli the news of the death of his sons came to Shiloh "with 
earth upon his head." 1 Sam. iv, 12. The young Amalekite who brought to 
David the tidings of Saul's death had "earth upon his head." 2 Sam. i, 2. 
Tamar, dishonored, "put ashes on her head." 2 Sam. xiii, 19. In the great 
fast which was held in Nehemiah's time in Jerusalem, the children of 
Israel had " earth upon them." Neh. ix, 1. When Job's three friends mourned 
with him in his great troubles, they " sprinkled dust upon their heads to- 
ward heaven." Job ii, 12. This shows the great antiquity of the practice. 
Jeremiah, in lamenting over the desolations of Zion, s;iys that the elders 
"have cast up dust upon their heads." Lam. ii, 10. Ezekiel, in predicting 
the destruction of Tyrian commerce, represents the sailors as casting up 
"dust upon their heads." Ezek. xxvii, 30. See also Rev. xviii, 19. 

280.— DUST-THROWING. 
XVI, 13. As David and his men went by the way, Shimei 
went along on the hill's side over against him, and cursed 
as he went, and threw stones at him, and cast dust. 

Throwing dust at a persou is an. Oriental mode of expressing anger and 
contempt. In addition to the instance here given we rind another in the 
history of Paul. The mob whom he addressed in Jerusalem became very 
much excited at his speech and sought to destroy him, declaring that he was 
not fit to live, and as evidence of their fury they " threw dust into the air." 
Acts xxii, 23. The precise meaning of this symbolic action we do not know. 
There may, however, be some connection between this custom and the prac- 
tice of persons iu trouble putting dust on their own heads in token of grief. 
See the preceding note. Throwing dust at others may be a symbolic mode 
of wishing them such trouble and grief that they may feel like covering 
themselves with dust, as an expression of their sorrow. 

2§1.— CISTERN IN THE COURT-YARD. 
XVII, 18, 19. But they went both of them away quickly, and 
came to a man's house in Bahurim, which had a well in his 
court ; whither they went down. And the woman took and 
spread a covering over the well's mouth, and spread ground 
corn thereon ; and the thing was not known. 

The well (beer) here spoken of was not a living fountain, but simply a cis- 
tern or reservoir dug in the court-yard, as is often the case in the East at 
the present day. Such cisterns sometimes become dry, and then make ex- 
cellent hiding-places for fugitives. The mouth being on a level with the 
ground, could be easily covered by a mat or some other article, and the corn 
being spread over this, suspicion would be disarmed. For description of the 
"court," see note on Esther i, 5. 



II Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 147 

2§2.— DOUBLE GATES. 
XVIII, 24. David sat between the two gates : and the watch- 
man went up to the roof over the gate. 

At the gateways of walled cities special care was taken to increase the 
strength of the wall and the power of resistance, since the most formidable 
attacks of the enemy would probably be made there. The ordinary thick- 
ness of wall not being sufficient it was here widened, or, more properly, 
doubled. Considerable space was included between the outer and the inner 
wall, and to each of these walls there was a gate. It was in the room thus 
made that "David sat between the two gates." 

283.— WATCHMAN— PORTER. 
XVIII, 26. The watchman saw another man running : and 
the watchman called unto the porter. 

1. Even strong walls and double gates would not of themselves secure a 
city from the enemy. Men were therefore employed to watch day and night 
on the top of the walls, and especially by the gates. It was thus that the 
messengers from the army were seen long before they reached the place 
where David anxiously sat. In like manner the watchman of Jezreel saw in 
the distance the company of Jehu driving furiously. 2 Kings ix, 17-20. 
So Isaiah in one of his sublime visions saw a watchman standing by 
his tower day and night. Isa. xxi, 5-12. A figurative use of the watch- 
man and his work is beautifully made in Isa. lxii, 6 ; Ezek. xxxiii. 2, 6, 7 ; 
Hab. ii, 1. 

2. It was the business of the porter to open and shut the gates at the 
proper time. In this case the porter, being in a convenient position below, 
could receive the intelligence from the watchman above and communi- 
cate the same to David. In 2 Kings vii, 10 this officer is called " the porter 
of the city." Porters are spoken of in connection with the rebuilding of the 
walls by Nehemiah. Neh. vii, 1. In Solomon's Temple there were four thou- 
sand of them, (1 Chron. xxiii, 5,) who were divided into courses, (2 Chron. 
viii, 14,) and had their posts assigned by lot. 1 Chron. xxvi, 13. 

284.— THE CHAMBER OVER THE GATE. 
XVIII, 33. The king was 'much moved, and went up to the 
eftamber over the gate, and wept. 

This chamber was a second story, which was built over the room referred 
to in the note on verse 24, and corresponded to it in size. It communicated 
with it by a stairway, and David retired there that he might have greater 
privacy in his grief. It was on the roof above this, which was a higher 
point of observation than the ordinary height of the wall, that the watchman 
Stood when he saw the messengers cominsr. Yerse 24. 



148 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Samuel. 

285.— LAMENTATIONS OVER THE DEAD. 
XIX, 4. The king covered, his face, and. the king cried with a 
loud voice, O my son Absalom! O Absalom, my son, my son! 

Though concealed from sight in the upper chamber, the lamentations of 
the bereaved king could be easily heard by his followers, for he " cried with 
a loud voice." These loud exclamations are alluded to in several other 
places. At Jacob's funeral there was ;i a great and very sore lamentation." 
Gen. 1, 10. When Jephthah, after his vow, saw his daughter coming, he 
cried, as if she were ahead}- dead, i; Alas, my daughter !" Judges xi, 85. 
"When the old prophet of Bethel buried in his own grave the disobedient 
prophet whom he had deceived to his death, he cried out, " Alas, my 
brother!" 1 Kings xiii. 30. It was among the curses heaped on Jehoiakim 
that he should have <! the burial of an ass," and not be consigned to 
the grave with the usual lamentations. " Therefore thus saith the Lord 
concerning Jehoiakim the son of Josiah king of Judah ; They shall not 
lament for him, saying, Ah my brother! or, Ah sister! they shall noc lament 
for him, saying. All lord! or, Ah his glory!" Jer. xxii, 18. Somewhat 
similar to these are the cries of the Egyptian mourners at the present time. 
"When the master of a house dies, the wives, children, aud servants cry out, 
"0 my master!" "0 my camel!" ;i Omylion!" "0 camel of the house !" 
"0 my glory! " " my resource ! " "0 my father ! " " my misfortune !" 
— Lane's Modern Egyptians, vol. ii, p. HI 8. 

Roberts, in his Oriental Illustrations, pp. 23G-241, gives a number of 
striking specimens of Hindoo lamentations over the dead. Among them 
are the expressions of grief uttered by a husband on the loss of his wife : 
" What, the apple of my eye gone ! my swan, my parrot, my deer, ray 
Lechimy! Her color was like gold; her gait was like the stately swan; 
her waist was like lightning; her teeth were like pearls; her eyes like the 
kiyal-fish (oval); her eyebrows like the bow; and her countenance like the 
full-blown lotus. Yes, she has gone, the mother of my children ! No more 
welcome, no more smiles in the evening when I return. All the world to 
me is now as the place of burning. G-et ready the wood for my pile. my 
wife, my wife ! listen to the voice of your husband." 

A father also says over the body of his son, " My sou, my son ! art thou 
gone ? What 1 am 1 left in my old age ? My lion, my arrow, my blood, my 
body, my soul, my third eye ! Gone, gone, gone ! " 

286.— FERRY-BOATS. 
XIX, 18. There went over a ferry-boat to carry over the king's 
household. 

This is the only passage where a ferry-boat is named, and some critics think 
that a mere crossing of a ford is meant. The Hebrews could not have been 



n Samuel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 149 

i^uorant of* the use of boats, since they were employed by the Egyptians, as 
is evident Irom the monuments. The king's servants may have used rafts, 
or flat-bottomed boats, for conveying his household over the river. See, fur- 
ther, the note on Isaiah xviii, 2. 

287.— CHERETHITES AND PELETHITES. 

XX, 7. There went out after him Joab's men, and. the Chere- 
thites, and. the Pelethites, and all the mighty men. 

Commentators aud philologists are divided in the interpretation of these 
terms. Lakemacher was the first to advance the idea that the Gref.hi and 
the Plethi were Philistine soldiers whom David had enlisted in his army. 
This opinion was adopted by Ewald, and has since been agreed to by many 
eminent scholars and theologians, and is the. view taken by Fuerst in his 
Hebrew Lexicon. On the other hand, others, equally eminent, contend that 
David would not have employed foreign soldiers as his body guard, as it is 
evident the Grethi and the Plethi were. Compare 2 Sam. xx, 23, with xxiii, 23. 
Some, however, attempt to meet this objection by supposing that they were 
Israelites who, from a lengthy residence in foreign parts, had attracted to them- 
selves a foreign name. See Fairbairn's Imp. Bib. Diet, s. v. .Cherethites. 
Gesenins defines the Orethi to be executioners, and the Plethi runners or cou- 
riers ; the duty of the former being to administer capital punishment, aud of 
the latter to convey the king's orders wherever he chose to send them. 
Benaiah, who commanded them, (verse 23,) held an office similar to that of 
Potiphar under Pharaoh, (Gen. xxxvii, 36,) and Arioch under Nebuchadnez- 
zar. Dan. ii, 14. 

288.— TOUCHING THE BEARD. 

XX, 9. Joab said to Amasa, Art thou in health, my brother ? 
And Joab took Amasa by the beard with the right hand to 
kiss him. 

To touch the beard of another was an insult, unless done as an act of 
friendship and a token of respect. Joab therefore showed the base treachery 
of his heart by coming to Amasa in the manner of a friend, thus entirely 
concealing his murderous intent. He inquired after his health, gently 
touched his beard as if to give a kiss, and then suddenly grasped it with 
his right hand and quickly stabbed the unsuspecting Amasa with the 
unnoticed sword which he held in his left. 

289.— CIRCLING NETS. 
XXIL, 6. The sorrows of hell compassed me about; the 
snares of death prevented me. 

The margin has " cords," instead of sorrows, which is a better rendering, 
because more consistent with the figure employed in the text. The allusion 

10 



150 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [H Samnel. 

is to an ancient mode of hunting, still in use. A certain tract of land, where 
wild beasts are known to be, is surrounded by a circle of nets, which is 
gradually contracted as the animals are driven in, until they are all brought 
to one common center, when escape is impossible. Similar reference is 
made in Psa. xviii, 5 ; cxvi, 3 ; Isa. li, 20. Eepresentations of this mode of 
hunting are found on the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. 



I KINGS. 



290. — THE PIPE. 
1,40. The people piped with pipes, and rejoiced with great joy. 

The pipe was one of the most ancient, as it was one of the simplest, of 
instruments. It was originally merely a reed with holes perforated at 
certain distances, whence it derived its Hebrew name, chalil : bored through. 
As its use became more general it was made with greater care, and some- 
times of other materials, such as brass, box-wood, horn, bone, or ivory. 
Sometimes a double pipe was used, one part being played with the right 
hand and the other with the left, and both uniting at the mouth-piece. 
The pipe was used for seasons of merriment or of joy. See 1 Sam. x, 5 ; 
Isa. v, 12; Luke vii, 32. It also served to enliven the journeys to the 
great feasts, (Isa. xxx, 29,) as music is now used in the East to entertain great 
companies of travelers. Sometimes, by reason of its soft wailing tones, it 
was used at funerals. Jer. xlviii, 36; Matt, ix, 23. 

291.— THE ASYLUM. 

I, 50. Adonijah feared because of Solomon, and arose, and 
went, and caught hold on the horns of the altar. 

The right of asylum in sacred places was common to all nations, and 
though nowhere formally declared in the Mosaic law, it was clearly recog- 
nized, as is evident from Exod. xxi, 14, where it is directed to be re- 
fused under certain extreme circumstances. It would seem from the text, 
and also from chapter ii, 28, that if an accused person could take hold of the 
horns of the altar he was safe unless his crime were of a peculiarly glariug 
character. The " Cities of Refuge " were appointed for a similar purpose. 
See Numbers xxxv, 15-32. 

292.— RARITY OF BURIAL IN CITIES. 

II, 10. So David slept with his fathers, and was buried in the 
city of David. 

This was a departure from the ordinary custom, as the dead were usually 
buried outside the cities. It was therefore a mark of high honor to the 



1 Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 151 

remains of the departed king that he was buried within the city ; the strong- 
hold of Zion which was called after his name. Here, also, Solomon was 
afterward buried. 1 Kings xi, 43. Aiiaz was likewise buried in the city, 
though not in the tomb of the kings. 2 Chron. xxviii, 21. Hezekiah, his 
son, was buried " in the chiefest of the sepulchers of the sons of David." 

2 Chron. xxxii, 33. Manasseh, who succeeded him, and Amon, his son, 
were both buried in Jerusalem, in the garden of Uzza. 2 Kings xxi, 18, 26. 

The sepulcher of David was known in apostolic times. Acts ii, 29. Its 
location is pointed out in the present day on the southern hill of Jerusalem, 
commonly called Mount Zion, under the Mosque of David. It is jealously 
guarded by Mohammedans from all intrusion. Dr. Barclay thinks that " the 
Tomb of David is several hundred yards east of the traditional locality."' 
— City of the Great King, p. 215. 

293.— FODDER. 
IV", 28. Barley also and straw for the horses and dromedaries. 

Barley was the usual fodder for cattle. They were also fed with a 
mixture of chopped straw, barley, beans, and pounded date kernels. 

294.— RAFTS. 

V, 9. I will convey them by sea in floats unto the place that 
thou shalt appoint me, 

See also 2 Chron. ii, 16. These are what we call rafts, consisting of a 
number of planks fastened together and launched upon the water. The 
practice is an ancient one, and it is said that the earliest boats were nothing 
more than mere rafts made in this way, though there is another form of raft 
that is very ancient. See note on Isa. xviii, 2. 

295.— SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. 

VI, 2. The house which king ..Solomon built for the Lord, the 
length thereof was threescore cubits, and the breadth thereof 
twenty cubits, and the height thereof thirty cubits. 

The idea of the temple did not originate with Solomon, but with David, 
who was not permitted to carry out his intention because he had been a man 
of war. 1 Chron. xxviii, 2, 3. God gave him a plan for the temple, as he 
had previously given Moses the plan for the tabernacle. This plan David 
communicated to Solomon, directing him to erect the building. 1 Chron. 
xxviii, 11-19. 

It was built on Mount Moriah, on the site of the altar which David 
erected on the threshing floor of Araunah the Jebusite. 2 Sam. xxiv, 21-25; 
2 Chron. iii, 1. It stood on the boundary line of Judah and Benjamin. 
According to Jewish authorities, the greater space of the courts was in 
Judah, but the temple and altar were in Benjamin. The hill being uneven, 



152 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Kings. 

the top was leveled, and walls were built on the sloping sides up to a level 
with the summit, the intervening space being filled partly with vaults and 
partly with earth. 

The temple had the same general arrangements as the tabernacle, being 
designed for the same purpose ; the difference between the two structures 
being mainly such as would be suggested by the Tact that the tabernacle was 
merely temporary and movable, while the temple was permanent and fixed. 
The dimensions of the temple were double those of the tabernacle. Like 
that, it faced the east, having the Most Holy Place in the west. 

Its length (including the porch) was seventy cubits. Of this length the 
porch had ten cubits, the Holy Place forty, . and the Most Holy Place 
twenty. 1 Kings vi, 3, 17, 20. The width of the building on the ground 
was twenty cubits, but to this there was added to the house proper a width of 
five cubits, for three stories of chambers which were built adjoining all the 
walls of the temple, excepting the porch. At the height of every five cu- 
bits the temple wall receded a cubit until half the height was reached; thus 
making each story of chambers a cubit wider than the one below it. 1 Kings 
vi, 5, 6, 10. The chambers on the west side must also have added five 
cubits to the length. The height of the building varied in different parts. 
The chambers were fifteen cubits high, the Most Holy Place twenty, the 
Holy Place thirty, and the porch one hundred and twenty. 1 Kings 
vi, 3, 20; 2 Ohron. iii, 4. It is thought by some critics that this last 
measurement is an error in the copying of some ancient manuscript. Eighty 
has been suggested by some as the correct reading, and twenty by others. 

In the porch were the two celebrated pillars called Jachin and Boaz. 
These were made of brass and highly ornamented. 1 Kings vii, 15-22. It 
is not definitely stated that they were placed in the porch as a support to 
that part of the building, but this would seem to be probable, though it is 
denied by some. Crossing the porch, which was ten cubits by twenty, we 
find folding doors of fir or cypress, having posts of olive wood. These 
doors were ornamented with carved cherubim, palm trees, and flowers, all 
of which were covered with gold. 1 Kings vi, 33-35. "Within the doors 
was the Holy Place, forty cubits long, twenty wide, and thirty high. 
There were windows in this, probably of lattice work. 1 Kings v-i, 4. 
These windows must have been in the upper part of the room, since the 
three stories of the chambers reached on the outside half way up the height. 
The stone walls were completely covered on the inside with wainscoting 
of cedar. The floor was made of cedar covered with cypress, which in turn 
was covered with gold. 1 Kings vi, 15, 30. The ceiling was cypress 
overlaid with gold. 2 Chron. iii, 5. The sides were elegantly carved with 
cherubim, palms, and flowers, covered over with gold. 1 Kings vi, 18; 
2 Chron. iii, 7. 



I X'ngs.] BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. 153 

In the Holy Place there were ten golden candlesticks, five on each side, 
and ten tables of show-bread, arranged in a similar way. 2 Chron. iv, 7, 8. 
It is supposed by some that only one candlestick and one table were in use 
as a time. See 2 Chron. xiii, 11 ; xxix, 18 ; where the words are in the singu- 
lar number. There were snuffers, tongs, basins, and all other necessary arti- 
cles, also of gold. 1 Kings vii, 50. The altar of incense, which was in this 
part of the temple, was made of cedar aud covered with gold. 1 Kings vi, 20. 

Between the Sanctuary, or Holy Place, and the Oracle, or Most Holy Place, 
there was a partition, in which were double doors made of olive-wood 
carved and overlaid with gold. 1 Kings vi, 31. 32. There was also a rich 
vail of embroidery at this doorway. 2 Chron. hi, 14. The Oracle, like the 
Most Holy Place of the tabernacle, was a perfect cube. It was twenty 
cubits in length, breadth, and height. 1 Kings vi, 20. Floor, sides, and 
ceiling were of wood, with carved cherubim, palm-trees, and flowers, all 
overlaid with gold. 1 Kings vi, 29, 30. There were no windows here ; 
Jehovah dwells in "thick darkness." 1 Kings viii, 12. Two gigantic 
cherubim, made of olive-wood and covered with gold, were in the Oracle. 
They were ten cubits high, and their outstretched wings, touching each 
other at the tips, reached entirely across the width of the room. 1 Kings 
vi, 23-28. They were in a standing position, and had their faces turned 
toward the vail. 2 Chron. iii, 10-13. The ark of the covenant, which had 
been in the tabernacle, was put into the Oracle under the wings of the 
cherubim after the temple was finished. 1 Kings viii, 6. No doubt the 
original cherubim and the mercy-seat accompanied it, though this is nowhere 
expressly stated. It may be inferred, however, from the fact that after the 
temple was built Jehovah is represented, as in the days of the tabernacle, 
"dwelling between the cherubim." Compare 1 Sam. iv, 4; 2 Sam. vi. 2; 
Psa. lxxx, 1; xcix, 1, with 2 Kings xix, 15 ; Isa. xxxvii, 16. 

No definite account is given of the court or courts surrounding the temple. 
In 1 Kings vi, 36 the " inner court " is spoken of. This was doubtless the 
space immediately around the sacred edifice. Its dimensions are not given, 
nor is it certain what is meant by the text just referred to: "He built the 
inner court with three rows of hewed stone, and a row of cedar beams." 
Some commentators suppose this to mean that the inner court was sur- 
rounded by a wall consisting of three courses of stone capped with cedar 
beams. Others suppose that the inner court was a raised platform elevated 
to the height of three courses of stone with a coping of cedar, and they 
refer to Jer. xxxvi, 10, where this is called "the higher court." 

This court, which was also called the "Court of the priests," (2 Chron. 
iv, 9,) contained the brazen altar of burnt offering, which was much larger 
than the one in the court of the tabernacle, being twenty cubits in length 
and in breadth, and ten in height. There was also here a circular " molten 



154 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. H Kings. 

sea," ten cubits in diameter and five in height. It stood on twelve brazen 
oxen, three facing each point of the compass. On each side of the altar 
there were five brazen lavers. 2 Chron. iv, 1-6. 

Around this court was another and a larger one, called the " Great Court," 
in 2 Chron. iv, 9; the " Outer Court," in Ezek. xlvi, 21 ; and the " Court of 
the Lord's House," in Jer. xix, 14; xxvi, 2. This was the Court of the 
People, and was surrounded by strong walls, in which were gates of brass. 
2 Chron. iv, 9. 

The foregoing description of Solomon's temple coincides in the main witli 
the accounts usually given by commentators. It is proper, however, to 
notice the ingenious theory advanced by the Rev T. 0. Paine, in his Sol- 
omon's Temple, already referred to in the note on Exod. xl, 2. Mr. P;iine 
has evidently studied the subject with much care, and has given the results 
of his investigations in an interesting monograph. He assumes that the 
description given by Ezekiel in chapter xl, et seq., is not the description of 
an ideal temple, but of Solomon's temple as it actually appeared before its 
destruction; and that it is designed to be a complement to the account 
given in the books of Kings and Chronicles, the one narrative detailing 
points omitted by the other. He asserts that the building, contrary to the 
usual opinion, was wider at the top than at the bottom, and refers to Ezek. 
xli, 7 for proof ; that the " chambers " mentioned as running around the 
building were galleries, and that these were supported by columns, the 
galleries increasing in distance from the temple- wall as they rose. He con- 
tends that " all pictures of the temple which represent it as widest on the 
ground and narrower upward are bottom upward." — Solomons Temple, 
p. 2. (See the engravings on the opposite page.) 

296.— THE MONTH ZIF. 
VI, 37. In the fourth year was the foundation of the house of 
the Lord laid, in the month Zif. 

This was the second month of the sacred year of the Hebrews, and cor- 
responded nearly to our month of May. 

297.— THE MONTH BUL. 

VI, 38. In the eleventh year, in the month Bui, which is the 
eighth month, was the house finished. 

This was the eighth month of the sacred year, and answered nearly to 
our November. 

29§.— SAWS. 

VII, 9. All these were of costly stones, according to the meas- 
ures of hewed stones, sawed with saws. 

"When the saw was invented is not known. It is seen on the Egyptian 
monuments, and also on the Assyrian. The saws referred to in the text 




57.— Front View 





59. — Interior. 
Solomon's Temple according to Paine. 



I Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 157 

were doubtless double-handed, since they were used for sawing stones. A 
striking peculiarity of the Oriental saw is that the teeth usually incline 
toward the handle instead of from it, as in the saws used among us. 

299.— THE MONTH ETHANIM. 
VIII, 2. All the men of Israel assembled themselves unto king 
Solomon at the feast in the month Ethanim, which is the 
seventh month. 

Ethanim was the seventh month of the sacred year, and the first of the 
civil year, and corresponded nearly with our month of October. The great 
day of atonement and the feast of tabernacles took place during this month. 
It is to this feast that reference is made in the text. 

300.— UPLIFTED HANDS IN PRAYER. 
VIII, 22. Solomon stood, before the altar of the Lord in the 
presence of all the congregation of Israel, and spread forth 
his hands toward heaven. 

This was an ancient custom in prayer, not only among the Hebrews, but 
among the heathen. At the present day a favorite praying posture with 
Mohammedans is standing with hands uplifted. The allusions to it in classic 
writers are frequent, and so also are the references in Scripture. See Exod. 
ix, 29, 33 ; 2 Chron. vi, 12 ; Ezra ix, 5 ; Job xi, 13 ; Psa. xxviii, 2 ; xliv, 20 ; 
lxviii, 31; lxxxviii, 9; cxxxiv, 2; cxli, 2; cxliii, 6; Isa. i, 15. 

301.— LARGE GOLDEN SHIELDS. 
X, 16. King Solomon made two hundred targ«ts of beaten 
gold : six hundred shekels of gold went to one target. 

The "target " here is different from the one spoken of in 1 Sam. xvii, 6, 
where see the note. There it is kidon, a javelin; here it is tsinnah, a large 
shield, for the description of which see note on 1 Sam. xvii, 1. These great 
golden shields of Solomon were probably made of wood, and covered with 
plates of gold instead of leather. See also 2 Chron. ix, 15. 

302.— SMALL GOLDEN SHIELDS. 
X, 17. He made three hundred shields of beaten gold : three 
pounds of gold went to one shield. 

These shields were of a smaller size than those referred to in the sixteenth 
verse. The Hebrew magen is in some places rendered "buckler," (2 Sam. 
xxii, 31 ; 2 Chron. xxiii, 9,) and, on the other hand, buckler is sometimes the 
rendering of tsinnah. See note on 1 Sam. xvii, 7. "While, however, the two 
words are thus interchanged by the translators, there was an essential 
difference in the size and weight of the two objects represented by them. 
The tsinnah, in verse 16, was for lipavy troops, and was large enough to pro- 



158 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Kings. 

tect the entire person ; while the magen. in this verse, was a shield which 
only protected a part of the person, could be carried on the arm, and 
was used by light troops. See also 2 Chron. ix, 1 6. 

303.— SOLOMON'S THRONE. 

X, 18. Moreover, the king made a great throne of ivory, and 
overlaid it with the best gold. 

The body of the throne was probably of wood, entirely covered with ivory 
and gold, both being visible and relieving each other. Judging from the 
description given of this throne it must have been one of extraordinary 
magnificence. It had, by the two arms, lions such as are represented on 
the monumental pictures of ancient Egyptian and Assyrian thrones. Six 
steps reached to the platform on which it was placed, and on either side of 
each step was an image of a standing lion. Thus the upward passage to 
the throne was guarded by twelve lions, six on either side. Oriemal 
monarchs have always been noted for the splendor of their thrones. Gold 
and precious stones of every kind, and wrought by the most elaborate work- 
manship into forms of rarest beauty, are described by travelers as dazzling 
the eye by the brilliancy of their appearance. We are told of thrones that 
are covered with diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and pearls, of almost fabulous 
size, and fashioned in the semblance of birds, beasts, trees, and vines with 
leaves and fruit. See also 2 Chron. ix, 17. 

304.— ASHTORETH— MILCOM. 

XI, 5. For Solomon went after Ashtoreth the goddess of the 
Zidonians, and after Mileom the abomination of the Ammon- 
ites. 

1. Ashtoreth was the companion deity to Baal. See note on Num. 
xxii, 41. This text, verse 33 of this chapter, and 2 Kings' xxiii, 13, are the 
only places where the word is used in the singular. In all other passages it 
is Ashtaroth, which is a term probably corresponding to Baalim, the plural 
of Baal. See note on Judges iii, 7. The two words are in several places 
coupled together. See Judges x. 6; 1 Sam. vii, 4; xii, 10. Ashtoreth, or 
Astarte, was a goddess of the Sidonians, and also of the Philistines. 1 Sam. 
xxxi, 10. Under different names she was worshiped in all the countries and 
colonies of the Syro- Arabian nations. As Baal is supposed to have represent- 
ed the sun, so Astarte is thought to have represented the moon ; though 
some take the two to stand for Jupiter and Venus. The worship of Astarte is 
very ancient, and was undoubtedly connected with impure rites. But little 
is known of the form of the goddess or of the mode of worship. She is 
sometimes seen represented with the head and horns of a cow, and some- 
times with a woman's head having horns. We read in Gen. xiv, 5, of the 
citv of Ashteroth Karnaim. that is, the horned Ashtaroth. As the city was 



I Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 159 

doubtless named because of the worship of Astarte, the word Karnaim 
(horns) is thought to have reference to the horns of the goddess, either lunar 
or bovine, or both. If " the queen of heaven " spoken of by Jeremiah 
was meant for Astarte, as many suppose, we have a little light thrown on 
the mode of her worship. " Seest thou not what they do in the cities of 
Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem ? The children gather wood, and the 
fathers kindle the fire, and the women knead their dough, to. make cakes to 
the queen of heaven, and to pour out drink-offerings unto other gods, that 
they may provoke me to anger." Jer. vii, 17, 18. See also Jer. xliv. 17-19. 
Here a whole family is represented as engaging in the worship of the god- 
dess. They present to her meat-offerings and drink-offerings, and burn 
incense. The worship of Astarte is also referred to in Judges ii, 13; 1 Sam. 
vii, 3 ; xii, 10. See likewise note on Isa. lxv, 11. 

2. Milcom, also called Malcham, (Zeph. i, 5,) is another name for Molech. 
See note on Lev. xviii, 21. 

305.— CRACKNELS. 

XIV, 3. Take with thee ten loaves, and. cracknels, and. a cruse 
of honey, and go to him. 

Cracknels (nikkuddim) were some sort of thin hard biscuit carried by the 
common people on their journeys. Their name (from nakad, to mark with 
points) may indicate thin punctured biscuits, or those which will easily 
crumble. 

306.-A MONSTROUS IDOL. 

XV, 13. Also Maaehah his mother, even her he removed from 
being queen, because she had made an idol in a grove ; and 
Asa destroyed her idol, and burnt it by the brook Kidron. 

MiphMseth, here, and in the parallel passage in 2 Chron. xv, 16, rendered 
"idol," is defined by Fuerst, "horror, terror, monstrosity." Prom the mode 
of its destruction here noticed this image was evidently of wood. It is sup- 
posed to have been an obscene figure, the worship of which shows the de- 
moralizing influence of idolatry. Such figures were often worshiped among 
the ancient idolaters, and are still worshiped in India. 

307.— STICKS FOR FUEL. 
XVII, 10. When he came to the gate of the city, behold, the 
widow woman was there gathering of sticks. 

There seems to have been a scarcity of fuel in Palestine then as now. 
Twigs, branches, sticks of all kinds, and even thorns, (Pea. lviii, 9,) are care- 
full v gathered for making fires, and the greatest economy is practiced in 
their use. 

See note on Psa. lviii, 9, and also on Matt, vi, 30. 



160 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Kings. 

30§.— THE MEAL JAR. 

XVII, 12. She said, As the Lord thy God liveth, I have not a 
cake, but a handful of meal in a barrel. 

The had was not what we understand by a barrel, a wooden vessel with 
staves and hoops, but a vessel made of clay. The same word is translated 
"pitcher" in several other places. It is still common in the East to keep 
grain in earthen jars. The same sort of vessel which was used for meal 
by this widow was afterward used for water on the occasion of Elijah's 
sacrifice. 1 Kings xviii, 33. 

309.— THE HABITS OF A HEATHEN GOD. 

XVIII, 27. It came to pass at noon, that Elijah mocked them, 
and said, Cry aloud : for he is a god ; either he is talking, or 
he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or peradventure he 
sleepeth, and must be awaked. 

Faber maintains the identity of Baal with the Hindoo deity Jagan Nath, 
the "lord of the universe," who is represented by his followers as sometimes 
wrapped in profound meditation, sometimes sleeping, and sometimes taking 
long journeys. He says, " Elijah is not simply ridiculing the worship of the 
idolatrous priests ; he is not taunting them, as it were, at random ; but he is 
ridiculing their senseless adoration, upon their own acknowledged principles." — 
Origin of Pagan Idolatry, vol. ii, p. 503. 

310.— LACERATIONS IN IDOL-WORSHIP. 
XVIII, 28. They cried aloud, and cut themselves after their 
manner with knives and lancets, till the blood gushed out 
upon them. 

It was customary among the heathen to make lacerations in their flesh, 
not only as a mark of mourning for the dead, as shown in the note on Lev. 
xix, 28, but also as an act of idolatrous worship. This custom was not, how- 
ever, of Egyptian origin, as were many of the customs practiced in Canaan. 
"Wilkinson says that the Egyptians beat themselves at the close of their 
sacrifices, as is shown by paintings in the tombs. He also says that the 
custom of cutting was from Syria. The same practice is followed at the 
present day among idolaters of different nations. They cut their flesh in 
various ways until they are streaming with blood. They consider that this 
voluntary blood-shedding is meritorious, aud will help to wash away their 
sins. 

311.— HOUR OF EVENING SACRIFICE. 

XVIII, 36. It came to pass at the time of the offering of the 
evening sacrifice that Elijah the prophet came near. 

The precise time at which that sacrifice was offered is a matter of dispute. 
In Exod. xxix, 39, it is directed to be offered " at even; " literally, between the 



IKiigs.] BIBLK MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 161 

two evenings. On the meaning of this expression the controversy turns. 
Some suppose the first evening to have been at sunset, and the second at 
the time when the stars became visible. The two evenings must have been 
earlier than this in Elijah's time, since the events which took place after his 
sacrifice on this occasion required a longer period of daylight than can be 
found so late in the day. See 1 Kings xviii, 40-46. The tradition among the 
Jews is that the first evening was at the time the sun began to decline to- 
ward the west ; that is, shortly after noon. The second evening was the time 
the sun set. The time of the evening sacrifice would thus be midway be- 
tween noon and sunset, or from half past two to half past three o'clock. 
This was about the time of its offering in the days of Christ. 

312.— THE SOUND OF RAIN. 
XVIII, 41. Elijah said unto Ahab, Get thee up, eat and drink ; 
for there is a sound of abundance of rain. 

In India, according to Roberts, it is as common to say, sound of rain, as 
with us to say, appearance of rain. This expression sometimes refers to the 
thunder which precedes rain, and sometimes to a blowing noise in the clouds 
which shows the approach of rain. 

313.— THE FACE BETWEEN THE KNEES. 
XVIII, 42. He east himself down upon the earth, and put his 
face between his knees. 

This is not, as some commentators have thought, a posture obtained by 
kneeling on the ground and then bending the face over to the earth. It 
refers to a common Oriental position for meditation and devotion. The per- 
son sits with the feet drawn close to the body, thus bringing the knees 
nearly on a level with the chin. In Egypt there are many statues of men 
in this position. Specimens of these can be seen in museums of Egyptian 
antiquities ; there are several such in the Abbott Collection in New York, 
and a number in the British Museum, one of which is made of black basalt. 
This was undoubtedly the posture of Elijah, who, in addition to sitting in 
this peculiar manner, inclined his head forward until his face was literally 
" between his knees." Dr. Shaw found this to be an occasional posture of 
the Turks and Moors in Barbary while engaged in their devotions. Rosen- 
miiller tells of a Persian poet who was so lost in religious contemplation, 
with his head upon his knees, that lie failed to hear the voice of a friend 
who accosted him. — Morgenland, vol. iii, p. 194. In India this posture is like- 
wise common for those who are engaged in deep meditation or who are in 
great sorrow. Roberts gives several illustrations of it: "This morning, as I 
passed the garden of Chinnan, I saw him on the ground with his face be- 
tween his knees. I wonder what plans he was forming! It must have been 



162 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[I Kings. 



something very important to cause him thus to meditate." "Kandan is sick 
or in trouble, for he has got his face between his knees." — Oriental Illustra- 
tions, p. 205. 

314.— GIRDLE— RUNNING FOOTMEN. 
XVIII, 46. He girded, up his loins, and. ran before Ahab to the 
entrance of Jezreel. 

1. The girdle is one of the most useful articles of Eastern costume, and 
frequently the most ornamental of them all. With the long loose dress of 
the Orientals it becomes a necessity, since it would be difficult to walk or 
run unless the dress were tightened. Hence Elijah " girded up his loins " 
as a preparation for running. See also 2 Kings iv, 29 ; ix, 1. Thus the 
Israelites prepared for their exodus. Exod. xii, 11. . It is also thought to 
give strength to the body while engaged in severe bodily labor or exercise, 
and hence the word is sometimes used figuratively to denote strength. See 
Job xl, 1 ; Psa. lxv, 6 ; xciii, 1. 

Girdles are of various sizes, and are made of different materials, from 
calico to cashmere. The rich use silk or linen, and sometimes decorate 
their girdles with gold, silver, and precious stones. The poor have them of 
coarser materials, leather being very commonly used. Elijah's girdle was of 
leather, (2 Kings i, 8 ;) so also was that of John the Baptist. Matt. iii. 4. 




60. — Running Footmen. (See next page.) 

Graham thus describes the mode of putting on the girdle. " The girdle is 
put on thus: your slave having folded it the right breadth, holds it at one 



I Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 168 

end, while you take the other and lay it upon your side, and roll yourself 
round and round, as tight as possible, till you arrive at the slave, who 
remains immovable. If you have no slaves, a hook or the branch of a tree 
will answer the same purpose." — The Jordan and the Rhine, p. 163. "When 
running, the ends of the outer garment are tucked into the girdle. 

2. It is still customary to do houor to a king by running before his 
chariot; and the same honor is conferred upon persons of less distinction. 
When Mohammed Ali came to Jaffa, some years ago, with a large army, to 
quell the rebellion in Palestine, he had his quarters inside the city, while the 
camp was on the sand-hills to the south. The officers in their passage from 
camp to headquarters " were preceded by runners, who always kept just 
ahead of the horses, no matter how furiously the\ r were ridden ; and in order 
to run with the greater ease, they not only girded their loins very tightly, 
but also tucked up their loose garments under the girdle, lest they should 
be incommoded by them." — Thomson, The Land and the Book, vol. ii, p. 227. 

Allusion is also made to this custom in 1 Sam. viii, 11 ; 2 Sam. xv, 1 ; 
1 Kings i, 5. (See the engraving on the opposite page.) 

315.— DAY'S JOURNEY. 
XIX, 4. But he himself went a day's journey into the wilder- 
ness. 

This is a very ancient mode of estimating distances, and is still in use. A 
" day's journey " varies, according to circumstances, from eighteen miles to 
thirty. The ordinary day's journey of Scripture is probably not far from 
twenty miles. See also Gen. xxx, 36; xxxi, 23 ; Exod. v, 3; viii, 27; Num. 
xi, 31 ; Deut. i, 2 ; 2 Kings iii, 9; Luke ii, 44. 

The "Sabbath day's journey" was a less distance. See note on 
Acts i, 12. 

316.— COVERING THE FACE. 

XIX, 13. It was so, when Elijah heard it, that he wrapped 
his face in his mantle, and went out, and stood in the enter- 
ing in of the eave. 

Covering the face was a sign of reverence in the presence of God. Thus 
Moses, when the Lord appeared to him in the burning bush, "hid his face, 
for he was afraid to look upon God." Exod. iii, 6. So the seraphim seen 
by Isaiah in his temple-vision covered their faces with two of their wings. 
Isa. vi, 2. 

317.— PLOWING. 
XIX 19. So he departed thence, and found Elisha the son of 
Shaphat, who was plowing with twelve yoke of oxen be- 
fore him, and he with the twelfth. 

The Eastern plow is a rude affair, far inferior to the one in use in our 
country. It does not enter deep into the soil, and is of very light and 



164 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[I Kings. 



simple construction, sometimes being made merely of the trunk of a young 
tree having two branches running in opposite directions. There are many 
plows, however, not quite so primitive in structure as this. See note on 
Isa. ii, 4. Some of them have one handle and some have two handles, arid 
they are usually drawn by two oxen. The plowmen often plow in company. 
Dr. Thomson says he has seen more than a dozen plows at work in the same 
field, each having its plowman and yoke of oxen, and all moving along in 
single file. Anderson makes a similar statement. We can thus see bow 
Elijah "was plowing with twelve yoke of oxen before him." He had not, 
as some have imagined, twenty-four oxen yoked to a single plow, but there 
were twelve plows in a file, each having its own oxen and plowman, and, he 
was "with the twelfth ; " that is, he had charge of the last plow in the file. 

318.— MILITARY GIRDLES. 
XX, 11. Let not him that girdeth on his harness boast himself 
as he that putteth it off. 

The girdle is used as a convenient place for carrying different weapons. 
The sword, the dagger, and in modern times the pistol, are placed there. 

It Avas thus that Ehud 
carried his dagger. 
Judges hi, 16. We 
are told in 1 Sam. 
xxv, 13, that David 
and his men girded 
on their swords. Sim- 
ilar allusions to this 
use of the girdle are 
made in Dent, i, 41 ; 
Psa. xlv, 3 ; Sol. Song 
hi, 8 ; Tsa. viii, 9. 

The military girdle 
was not, however, a 
mere sword-sash, but 
a strong belt, designed to sustain the body, and at the same time to cover 
such portion of the abdomen as might be unprotected by the cuirass. Some 
girdles, indeed, seem to have been a constituent part of the cuirass, intended 
to fasten it more firmly. The importance of the girdle as a piece o c armor 
is seen in the fact that thorough preparation for the fight is called " girding 
on." Paul says : " Stand therefore, having your loins girt about with truth." 
Eph. vi, 14. 

Military girdles were made of stronger materials than those designed for 
common purposes. Leather, iron, and bronze were used in their construc- 
tion, and, where rich ornament was required, silver and gold. 




61.— Ancient Military Girdles. 



I Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 165 

319.— PAVILIONS. 
XX, 16. But Ben-hadad was drinking himself drunk in the 
pavilions, he and the kings, the thirty and two kings that 
helped him. 

It is not necessary to associate any idea of splendor with these " pavil- 
ions." They were merely booths, (succoth,) as the word is rendered in Gen. 
xxxiii, 17; Jobxxvii, 18; Jonah iv, 5. In Isaiah i, 8, the same word is 
translated "lodge;" in Amos ix, 11 it is "tabernacle." Such "pavilions" 
were nothing but temporary structures of boughs erected to keep off the 
heat, and even kings were not ashamed to make use of them. It is said 
that such are still erected for Turkish pashas while on warlike expeditions. 

320.— GODS FOR HILLS AND VALLEYS. 
XX, 28. The Syrians have said, The Lord is God of the hills, 
but he is not God of the valleys. 

There seems to be an allusion here to the opinion, prevalent among all 
heathen nations, that the different parts of the earth had different divinities. 
They had gods for the woods, for the mountains, for the seas, for the heavens, 
and for the lower regions. The Syrians seem to have received the impres- 
sion that Jehovah was specially the God of the mountains ; but he mani- 
fested to them that he ruled every-where. 

321.— TOKEN OF ABASEMENT. 

XX, 32. So they girded sackcloth on their loins, and put ropes 
on their heads, and came to the king of Israel. 

This was a sign of deep abasement and submission. It was a Persian 
custom for persons desiring clemency from the sovereign to approacli him 
with a sword suspended from the neck. The same practice has also been 
noticed in Egypt. Harmer suggests that these servants of Ben-hadad ap- 
pear before Ahab with ropes around their necks from which their swords 
hung. Others suppose that these ropes were halters. 

322.— SALE OF PATRIMONY. 

XXI, 3. Naboth said to Ahab, The Lord forbid it me, that I 
should give the inheritance of my fathers unto thee. 

The law of Moses would not permit the sale of one's patrimony, except 
in cases of extreme destitution. See Lev. xxv, 23, 25: Num. xxxvi, 7. 
Roberts gives an interesting description of an Eastern garden, and speaks 
of the high value placed on it by its owner, who has inherited it from his 
ancestors, and whose dearest associations in life are connected with it. 
" To part with such a place is, to the people of the East, like parting with 
life itself." — Oriental Illustrations, p. 208. 



166 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[I Kings. 





323.— SEALS. 

XXI, 8. So she wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed, them 
with, his seal. 

The seal is, in the East, of more importance than the signature, and in- 
deed is often used in place of a signature. No document is of any validity 
without it. The ordinary mode of using it is to cover it with ink, and 
press it on the paper. The seal is often connected with a ring, and worn 
on the finger. See note on Gen. xli, 42. 

Ancient seals have been found of various shapes — cylindrical, square, 
pyramidal, oval, and round. A very common style of seal among the an- 
cient Egyptians was one made of stone, rounded on one side and flat <>u 

the other. The 
inscription for the 
seal was on the 
flat surface, and 
the convex sur- 
face was skillfully 
wrought into the 

62.— Egyptian Signet Kings. form of a scara- 

baeus or beetle. 
Since the beetle was worshiped by the Egyptians, whose example was 
followed by the Phenicians, after whose deities Ahab had gone, some have 
thought that Ahab's seal was of this description. 

Seals that were not set in rings were perforated with a hole through 
which a string passed, by means of which the seal was suspended from the 
neck. It is supposed that Judah's was worn in this way. Gen. xxxviii, 18. 
Many ancient seals were in shape of a cylinder, and some of these were set 
in a frame which enabled the seal to revolve as the impression was made. 
Some beautiful specimens of this kind 
of seal have been found among the 
ruins in Chaldea and Assyria. 

The figures engraved on seals were 
various. Modern Oriental seals have 
usually the name ol the owner on them, 
and often a sentence from the Ko- 
ran. The ancient seals had devices 
of symbolical meaning, and letters 
either hieroglyphic or cuneiform. 

Seals are made of brass, silver, gold, 
pottery, and stone, either precious or common, set in metal. The art of 
ens-raving stones is very ancient. See Exod. xxviii, 11, 36; xxxix, 6. 

See also note on Neh. vi, 5, and on Job xxxviii. 14. 




Seal, with Fbame. 



II Kings.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



167 



II KINGS 



324.— THE FLY-GOD. 

I, 2. He sent messengers, and said, unto them, Go, inquire of 
Baal-zebub the god of Ekron whether I shall recover of this 
disease. 

Baal-zebub is, literally, " the fly-god ; " but whether this name was given in 
honor or in contempt is not known. It may have been at first a name of con- 
tempt, which afterward, by general use, lost its original significance. Some 
suppose this god to have been one of the medical idols of the Philistines, 
receiving its title from its 
imaginary influence over 
pestiferous insects which are 
said to infest Pbilistia. In 
Taylor's Calmet there is a 
curious picture of an an- 
tique paste representing a 
head of Jupiter, and having 
the appearance of a huge fly. 

Grale says : " The Pheni- 
cians styled their principal 
god Baal Samen, 'the lord 
of heaven.' (in the Pheni- 
cian language.) The Jews 
called him Baal-zebub, 'lord 
of a fly.' Scaliger supposes 
that the original name was 
Baal-zebahim, ' lord of sacri- 
fices,' contracted, by way 
of contempt, to Baal-zebub, 
1 lord of flies ; ' i. e., he could 
not k( ep flies away from his 
sacrifices." — Court of the 
Gentiles, book ii, c. vii, p. 80. 

It is thought that Beelzebul is a contemptuous designation of this Philis- 
tine Baal, he by it being called dung-god. See Matt, x, 25 ; xii, 24 ; Mark 
ill, 22; Luke xi, 15, 18, 19, where, according to the best authorities, Beel- 
zebub should read Beelzebul. The Jews, being fond of playing upon words, 
may have intentionally altered the name of this god. Some, however, define 
Beelzebul to mean "the lord of the dwelling," and deny any connection 
between Beelzebul of the New Testament and Baalzebub of the Old. 

11 




64.— The Fly-God. 



168 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



BI Kings. 



* 325.— THE DIVAN. 

I, 4. Thou, shalt not come down from that bed on which thou 
art gone up, but shalt surely die. 

The royal bed was probably made, as beds are now in the houses of 
wealthy Orientals, on the divan, which is a platform about three to four feet 
in width, extending sometimes across one end of the room and sometimes 
around three sides. It is used as a sofa by day. and as a sleeping-place at 




Co. — Modern Syrian House — Interior, showing the Divan. 



night. It is usually elevated from six inches to a foot from the floor, though 
Professor Hackett found one instance at least in which the height of the 
divan was such that it was necessary to mount to it by two or three steps. 
In the palace of a king it would probably be higher than in ordinary dwell- 
ings, and thus Ahaziah literally went " up " to his bed. In like manner 
David speaks of going " up" into his bed. Psa. cxxxii, 3. 

326.— SCHOOLS OF THE PROPHETS. 

II, 3. And the sons of the prophets that were at Bethel came 
forth to Elisha. 

The disciples of the prophets were called sons, as teachers are sometimes 
called fathers. 2 Kings h, 12; vi, 21. These "sons of the prophets" 
formed a peculiar order, whose mission seems to have been to assist the 
prophets in their duties, and in time to succeed them. They were not a mo- 
nastic order, as some suppose, nor were they merely theological students, 



n Kings] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 169 

though they probably studied the law and the history of God's people, 
together with sacred poetry and music. 

The " schools of the prophets " in which these " sons " were trained are 
supposed to have been founded by the prophet Samuel, though their origin 
and history are involved in obscurity. They were located not only in Bethel, 
as appears from the text, but also in Rama, (1 Sam. xix, 19, 20,) in Jericho, 
(2 Kings ii, 5,) in Gilgal, (2 Kings iv. 38,) and probably in other places. See 

1 Sam. x, 5, 10, and 2 Kings vi, 1. Their members were numerous; a 
hundred are spoken of in Gilgal, (2 Kings iv, 43,) and at least fifty in Jeri- 
cho. 2 Kings ii, 7. 

Some of "the sons of the prophets" were married, and probably lived in 
houses of their own. 2 Kings iv, 1, 2. Others were unmarried and occupied 
a building in common, (2 Kings vi, 1, 2,) and ate at a common table. 

2 Kings iv, 38. 

How long the " schools of the prophets " lasted is not definitely known. 
They seem to have flourished most in 'ihe time of Samuel, Elijah, and Elisha. 
Eifty years after Elisha's death Amos prophesied; and, according to his 
statement, he had no training in a prophetic school, though it does not follow 
that none existed in his day. See Amos vii, 14. 

An extended account of these schools may be found in KeiVs Commentary 
on 1 Sam. xix, 18-24 

327.— THE CRUSE. 

II, 20. He said, Bring me a new eru.se, and put salt therein. 
And they brought it to him. 

7'selocJrith, here translated "cruse," is rendered "dish" in 2 Kings xxi, 13: 
"pan," in 2 Chron. xxxv, 13; and "bosom," in Prov. xix, 24; xxvi, 15. It 
is supposed to have been a flat metal dish. 

32 §.— BALDNESS. 

II, 23. There came forth little children out of the city, and 
mocked him, and said unto him, Go up, thou bald head ; go 
up, thou, bald head. 

In India the expression " bald-head " has no special reference to a lack of 
hair, but is often applied to men who have an abundance. It is rather a 
term of contempt, intended to signify a mean and worthless fellow. 

The Hebrews valued a good head of hair, and greatly deprecated baldness. 
See Isa. xv, 2, and note. 

399.— WASHING HANDS. 

III, 11. Here is Elisha the son of Shaphat, which poured water 
on the hands of Elijah. 

As no knives or forks are used in the East, it is absolutely necessary to 
have a plentiful supply of water for the hands at the close of every meal. 



170 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[II Kings. 



For this a pitcher and basin are provided. The hands are held over the 
basin while a servant pours water from the pitcher. The basin has a 

double bottom, the 
upper part of winch 
is full of holes, 
through which the 
water as soon as 
used passes out of 
sight into the lower 
part. From the cen- 
ter of the bottom 
there rises a sm-11 
projection which is 
used as a receptacle 
for the soap. The 
expression in the text, 
" poured water on the 
hands," is intended 
to show that Elisha 
performed the work 
of a servant for Elijah. He was Elijah's assistant as well as his disciple. 




Mode of "Wasiiixg- Hands. 



330— HUMAN SACRIFICES. 
Ill, 27. Then he took his eldest son, that should have reigned 
in his stead, and offered him for a burnt offering upon the 



The offering of human sacrifices is a very ancient custom, and was 
practiced at different times among many nations. Burder, in an elaborate 
note, {Oriental Literature, No. 570,) gives a long list of nations who offered 
human sacrifices. Among these are the Ethiopians, the Phenicians, the 
Scythians, the Egyptians, the Chinese, the Persians, the Indians, the Gauls, 
the Goths, the Carthaginians, the Britons, the Arabians, and the Romans. 
These sacrifices were offered in various ways. Some were slaughtered by 
the knife; some were drowned; some were burned; some were buried 
alive. In some instances, as in the case recorded in the text, parents 
sacrificed their own offspring. The idolatrous Israelites followed the 
example of their Phenician neighbors in this respect. See Jer. xix, 5. Allu- 
sion is made to this custom in Mi cab. vi, *l. 

A few years since an inscription was discovered in Behistun, which, 
according to the rendering of Professor Grotefend of Hanover, contained an 
offer of Nebuchadnezzar to let his son be burned to death in order to ward 
off the affliction of Babylon.— Savile's Truth of the Bible, p. 281. 



n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 171 



331 —RIGHTS OF CREDITORS. 

IV, 1. The creditor is come to take unto him my two sons to 
be bondmen. 

The Mosaic law gave the creditor tbe right to claim the person and children 
of the debtor who could not pay that they, might serve him until the year of 
Jubilee, when they again became free. See Lev. xxv, 39-41. Reference is 
made to this custom in Neh. v, 5, 8 ; Job xxiv, 9 ; Isa. 1, 1. 

There was a similar, though severer, law among other nations, who are 
supposed to have derived the idea from the Hebrews. See Matt, xviii, 25. 

332.— VESSEL FOR OIL. 

IV, 2. She said, Thine handmaid hath not any thing in the 
house, save a pot of oil. 

AsuJc, pot, is supposed to have been an earthen jar, deep and narrow, 
with a pointed bottom which was inserted into a 
stand of wood or stone, or stuck into the ground 
like the Roman and Egyptian amphora. Phillott 
(Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. Pot) thinks 
that the asuk had no handles, while the amphora 
had a handle on each side. Amphoroz were used 
for containing or carrying oil, wine, or water. 
Though usually of earthenware, they were some- 
times made of metal. The "pitcher" referred to 
in Mark xiv, 13, and in Luke xxii, 10, is supposed 
to have been an amphora. T— MPH0RiE - 

333.— ALIYAH— STOOL. 
IV, 10. Let us make a little chamber, I pray thee, on the wall ; 
and let us set for him there a bed, and a table, and a stool, 
and a candlestick. 

1. The aliyah, "chamber," is an upper room of an Eastern house, be- 
ing sometimes built on the roof, and sometimes making a second story to 
the porch, to which it has access by stairs. It is hence called in 2 Sam. 
xviii, 33, " the chamber over the gate." See note on that text. In the text 
it is called a chamber " in the wall," probably because its window, opening 
to the street, made a break in the dead wall, and was thus about the only 
evidence to an outside spectator of the existence of rooms in the house. It 
is usually well furnished, and kept as a room for the entertainment of 
honored guests. Thus the Shunammite entertained Elisha, as related in the 
text. It was in such a room that Elijah dwelt in Zarephath at the house of 
the widow. 1 Kings xvii, 19, 23. In the first of these two verses we have 
the word " loft " as a translation of the word aliyah, thus conveying to 




172 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [H Kings. 

many minds the idea of a bare, desolate garret, which is very far from the 
fact. Further than this. Dr. Thomson states that the poorer kind of houses 
have no aliyah, which leads him to the conclusion " that this widow woman 
was not originally among the very poorest classes, but that her extreme 
destitution was owing to the dreadful famine which then prevailed." — The 
Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 235. 

Such a room makes a desirable place of retirement for the master of the 
house. Ahaziah was in an aliyah, in his palace of Samaria, when he fell 
through the lattice-work of the window and injured himself. 2 Kings i, 2. 
Eglon, King of Moab, was in a room of this description when he was assas- 
sinated by Ehud. Judges hi, 20. Aliyah is in this text rendered "summer 
parlor ; " the marginal reading is " a parlor of cooling." Doubtless the latticed 
windows were so arranged as to keep the room as cool and comfortable as 
possible. 

It was on the roof of an aliyah in the palace of Ahaz that the kings of 
Judah had erected altars for idolatrous worship. 2 Kings xxiii, 12. It was 
in an aliyah where, in the midst of idolaters, Daniel prayed three times daily 
to the one true God. Dan. vi, 10. Aliyoth are also referred to in Jer. xxii, 
13, 14, and in Psa. civ, 3, 13, where the word is most beautifully used in a 
figurative sense. 

In the New Testament the aliyah is referred to under the name of " upper 
room," (inzepuov, which is the Septuagint rendering of aliyah.) It was in 
such a place that the disciples gathered immediately after the ascension of the 
Saviour. Acts i, 13. In a room of this kind the corpse of Tabitha or Dorcas 
was placed Here the widows whom she had helped wept over her, and 
here Peter restored her to life. Acts ix, 37, 39. In a similar place, in the 
city of Troas, Paul once preached until midnight. Acts xx, 7, 8. 

It is also supposed by some commentators that the "upper room" where 
Jesus ate the passover with his disciples was a room of this description. 
Mark xiv, 15; Luke xxii, 12. Others, however, deny this, since vTrepuov is 
not the word used to denote the room. See note on Mark xiv, 15. 

2. "Stool." here, like "loft" in 1 Kings xvii, 19, seems to indicate some-, 
thing very rude ; but in reality the original word Qcisse) is the very word 
that is used in some other passages to designate a throne. The seat for the 
prophet was probably the very best that could be procured. 

334.— LADIES RIDING. 
IV, 22. She called unto her husband, and said, Send me, I 
pray thee, one of the young men, and one of the asses, that 
I may run to the man of God, and come again. 

Ladies of the higher class in the East seldom walk, but almost always ride 
on asses, which are there more frequently used for riding than with us. The 



II Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 173 

rider is attended by a servant who runs behind, and, with a whip or stick, 
drives or goads the animal forward at whatever pace may be desired. Solo- 
mon is thought to refer to this custom in Eccles. x, 5-1. 

335.— TIMES OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 
IV, 23. He said, Wherefore wilt thou, go to him to day? it is 
neither new moon, nor sabbath. 

The prophets were probably accnstomed at the new moon and on the Sab- 
bath-day to assemble the people for instruction and edification. The ques- 
tion of the husband of the Shunammite woman appears, therefore, to express 
his astonishment that she should go to the prophet at a time which was 
neither new moon nor Sabbath. The prophet Amos represents the greedy, 
sordid men of his day as saying, " "When will the new moon be gone, that we 
may sell corn ? and the Sabbath, that we may set forth wheat? " Amos viii, 5. 
They preferred their worldly business to the keeping of sacred days, or listen- 
ing to the instructions of the men of God. 

336.— FORMAL SALUTATION. 

IV, 26. Run now, I pray thee, to meet her, and say unto her, 
Is it well -with thee? Is it well with thy husband? Is it well 
with the child? And she answered, It is well. 

These are merely the customary formal salutations which are so profusely 
used by Orientals. Dr. Thomson says, " If you ask after a person whom you 
know to be sick, the reply at first will invariably be well, thank God, even 
when the next sentence is to inform you that he is dying." — The Land and the 
Booh vol. ii, p. 117. The expression is also used without any reference to the 
state of one's health ; as in verse 23, when the husband expressed his sur- 
prise at his wife's going to see the prophet at that time, her only answer was, 
"Well/' The salutation is the same in form as that of "Peace," so often 
spoken of in the Bible. See note on John xx, 19. 

337.— RIMMON— ETIQUETTE. 

V, 18. When my master goeth into the house of Rimmon to 
worship there, and he leaneth on my hand. 

1. Rimmon is supposed to have been a prominent deity of the Syrians. 
Traces of the name are found in Tabrimon, the father of Benhadad, king 
of Syria, (1 Kings xv, 18,) and perhaps in Hadadrimmon. Zech. xii, 11. 
Nothing definite is known of this deity or of the nature of his worship, and 
the derivation of the word is uncertain. Some suppose it to be the applica- 
tion to a deity of the word rimmon, a pomegranate. Stollberg in his History 
of Religion, (cited by Rosenmiiller, Morgenland, vol. iii, p. 231,) says that the 
Orientals consider apples as symbols of the sun, and on this account certain 



174 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Kings, 

court servants of the king of Persia carried a staff with a golden apple on the 
point. Others derive the word from ramam, to be high, or lifted up. This 
again would point to the sun ; and it is highly probable that the worship of 
Eimmon had some connection with that adoration of the sun so common 
among the heathen nations of the East. 

2. It was probably a part of the court etiquette that the king should lean 
on the arm of one of his chief officers. The king of Israel had this custom 
as well as the king of Syria. 2 Kings vii, 2, 17. The Jews have a tradition 
that two young women waited on Esther when she was queen of Persia, one 
to hold up her train, and the other for her to lean upon. 

33§.— THE CAB. 
YT, 25. The fourth part of a eab of dove's dung for five pieces 
of silver. 

The cab was a dry measure holding nearly two quarts. 

339.— MARKET AT THE GATE. 

VII, 1. To-morrow about this time shall a measure of fine 
flour be sold for a shekel, and two measures of barley for a 
shekel, in the gate of Samaria. 

The vicinity of the gate was a convenient place for the sale of produce, 
since what was for sale would be exposed to the view of all passing in or 
out. Reference is made to this in Neh. xiii, 20, 21. Layard. speaking of the 
vaulted recesses in the gateways of Assyrian cities, says, " Frequently in the 
gates of cities, as at Mosul, these recesses are used as shops for the sale of 
wheat and barley, bread and grocery." — Nineveh and Babylon, p. 57, 
(note.) 

340.— OSTENTATION IN MAKING PRESENTS. 

VIII, 9. So Hazael went to meet him, and took a present 
with him, even of every good thing of Damascus, forty cam- 
els' burden, and came and stood before him. 

There is no reason to suppose, as some commentators have done, that 
these camels were loaded with all that they could carry "of every good 
tiling of Damascus." It was merely the Oriental desire for display which 
sent the forty camels. No doubt the royal present was really valuable, but 
the different articles of which it was composed were probably so distributed 
that each camel had but a small portion, and thus a caravan was brought 
into use. Maillet (cited by Harmer, vol. ii, p. 313) says, speaking of 
bridal presents, " Through ostentation, they never fail to load upon four or 
five horses what might easily be carried by one; in like manner, as to the 
jewels, trinkets, and other things of value, they place in fifteen dishes what 
a single plate would very well hold." 



II Kings.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



175 



Probably the present which the children of Israel sent to Eglon, king of 
Moab, was accompanied with a similar parade. It is said of Ehud that 
" when he had made an end to offer the present, he sent away the people 
that bare the present." Judges hi, 18. This indicates that a number of 
persons were called into requisition to convey the gift. It is said to be a 
custom in Persia, when a present is brought to the king, not to permit any 
person to carry more than one article, no matter how small it may be. 

341.— OIL VESSEL. 
IX, 1. Gird up thy loins, and. take this box of oil in thine 
hand, and go to Ramoth-gilead. 

We have no account of the material or shape of the pah, which is here 
called " box," and in 1 Sam. x, 1, "vial." Gesenius derives it from pakah, 
" to drop." This would seem to indicate a flask with a narrow mouth, from 
which oil or perfumery might be dropped. Such flasks have been found 
among Egyptian and Ass}'rian remains. 

342.— EYE PAINTING. 
IX, 30. When Jehu was come to Jezreel, Jezebel heard of it; 
and she painted her face, and tired her head, and looked out 
at a window. 

This is literally, " put her eyes in paint," and alludes to the very ancient 
custom, still observed in the East, of coloring the eyes with a black powder 
called kohl. Graham says : "It is probable that stibium or antimony was 
formerly used for this purpose, and in some places it may be so used still, 
especially for painting the edges of the eyelids. Kohl, the substance now 
in general use for blackening the eyes and the eyebrows, is produced by 
burning liban, a kind of frankincense, and by burning the shells of almonds 
This kind is merely ornamental; but the kohl, formed from the powder of 
the ore of lead, is used as much for its supposed medicinal as its beautifying 
properties. The arch of the eyebrow is much darkened and elongated, and 
the edges of the eyelids, both above and below, tinged with the dark hues 
of the kohl, which is supposed to add to the natural beauty of the counte- 
nance by the effects of contrast." — The Jordan and the Rhine, p. 190. 

In Jer. iv, 30 reference is made to this practice: 
"Though thou rentest thy face with painting." The 
marginal reading is eyes, instead of "face," and the 
allusion is to the effect of the powder on the eye. 
Being astringent, it contracts the eyelids, and by con- 
trast of color makes the white of the eye look larger, 
thus " rending " or widening the eye. Prov. vi, 25, is 
also supposed to allude to this custom; and there is a 
refertnce to it in Ezek. xxiii, 40. Some think the 




-Two Styles of 
Eyk Painting. 



176 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



UI Kings. 



practice was common as far back as the days of Job, from the fact that one 
of his daughters was called Keren-happuch, that is, paint-horn. Job xlii, 14. 

The powder is kept in glass vessels, 
and was anciently kept in boxes of 
wood, stone, or pottery of various 
shapes ; some of them highly ornament- 
ed, and having from two to five differ- 
ent compartments. Several of these 
curious boxes, brought from Egypt, and 
ver3 r ancient, are now in the Abbott 
Collection, New York. 

The kohl is applied to the eyelids 

by a small piece of wood, ivory, or 

silver, made for the purpose, and in 

-Kohl Boxes and Implements. shape not unlike a bodkin . This is 

moistened in rose-water and dipped into the black powder and then drawn 
under the e} T elids. 




343.— ENEMIES BEHEADED. 

X, 8. There eame a messenger, and. told, him, saying, They 
have brought the heads of the king's sons. And he said, Lay 
ye them in two heaps at the entering in of the gate until the 

morning. 

Beheading enemies is a very ancient custom. Thus David cut off the 
head of Goliath and carried it to Saul. 1 Sain, xvii, 51, 57. So also the 
Philistines cut off the head of Saul. 1 Sam. xxxi, 9. Layard found at Nine- 
veh representations of scenes which well illustrate the text. Heads of slain 
enemies are collected and brought to the king, or to the officer appointed to 
take account of their number. Morier, in his narrative of his second journey 
through Persia, states that prisoners have been known to be put to death in 
cold blood in order to increase the number of heads of the slain which are 
deposited in heaps at the palace gate. Many such heaps of heads are piled 
up in Persia. Sir William Ousely, who was in Persia in the early part of this 
century, saw the remains of some of these heaps on which the skulls seemed 
to be stuck together in a mass of clay or mortar. Similar accounts are 
given by later travelers. 



344.— PRIESTLY ROBES. 

X, 22. He said unto him that was over the vestry, Bring forth 
vestments for all the ^worshipers of Baal. And he brought 
them forth vestments. 

Like the priests of almost all nations, the priests of Baal had their particu- 
lar sacred robes which they used only while officiating. They were made 



n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS A.ND CUSTOMS. 177 

probably of white byssus, and were kept in a particular wardrobe of the 
temple under the care of some person appointed for the purpose. 

345.— STORAGE FOR BEDS. 
XI, 2. They hid. him, even him and his nurse, in the bed- 
chamber. 

Literally, in the chamber of beds, which was a room, not for sleeping, but 
for storing beds, whence they could be brought out when needed for use. 
Their place of concealment was thus less likely to be discovered than if they 
had been hidden in a mere sleeping-room. See also 2 Chron. xxii, 11. 

346.— CORONATION CEREMONIES. 

XI, 12. He brought forth the king's son, and put the erown 

upon him, and gave him the testimony ; and they made him 

king, and anointed him ; and they clapped their hands, and 

said, God save the king. 

We have here noted the most important ceremonies connected with the 
coronation of a Hebrew king. See also 2 Chron. xxiii, 11. 

1. The crown was put upon him. We have no definite knowledge of the 
shape of the crowns which were worn by the Hebrew kings. The original 
word used here is the same that is used to denote the diadem of the high 
priest, which was a plate of gold tied around the head with a ribbon. Exod. 
xxxix, 30, 31. Doubtless there were other forms of crowns, as other words 
are used in various passages. 

2. They gave him the " testimony." That is, they made to him a formal 
presentation of a manuscript roll of the Divine law, as an indication that this 
was to be his guide in administering the government. 

3. They anointed him. This was not done in every case of coronation, 
and from the expression " they made him king," which precedes the state- 
ment of his anointing, it has been inferred that the essential parts of the 
coronation ceremony were those connected with the crown and the "testi- 
mony ; " the anointing of the founder of a dynasty being considered all that 
was necessary so long as the succession was unbroken in his family. Saul 
was thus anointed, (1 Sam. x, 1,) and so also was David. 2 Sam. ii. 4. 
Solomon was likewise anointed, (1 Kings i, 39,) because there was a proba- 
bility that his right to the throne would be disputed ; and Joash, in the text, 
was anointed for the same reason. Anointing was a ceremony connected 
with coronation before the Jews ever had a king, as is evident from Judges 
ix, 8, 15. It was by Divine command that the people of God adopted it. 
See 1 Sam. ix, 16; x, 1; 1 Kings i, 34, 39. From this circumstance the 
king was called " the Lord's anointed." See 1 Sam. xii, 3, 5; 2 Sam. 
i, 14, 16; Psa. ii. 2 ; Hab. iii, 13, etc. 



178 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



m Kings. 



4. The people then clapped their hands and shouted, " Live the king." 
This was their part of the ceremony, and denoted their approbation of the 
newly crowned sovereign. Mr. Harmer (Observations, vol. ii, p. 433) calls 
attention to the fact that the Hebrew text in this place, and in Psa. xlvii, 1, 
and Isa. lv, 12, has hand instead of hands, as our translators have it. He 
suggests that a different sort of clapping may have been meant by this than 
what is ordinarily understood by clapping hands, where one hand is forcibly 
struck upon another, though that is practiced in the East. He refers to an 
Oriental custom of striking the fingers of one hand gently and rapidly upon 
the lips as a token of joy, and supposes that the expression clap the hand, 
in distinction from clap the hands, refers to some similar custom observed 
by the Hebrews. 

347.—THE KING'S PLACE. 

XI, 14. The king stood by a pillar as the manner was. 

This "pillar" was some prominent place which the king was in the habit 
of occupying in the temple. Tt is also referred to in 2 Kings xxiii, 3. Tt is 
said in 2 Citron, xxxiv. 31, that king Josiah "stood in his place." The same 

word is there used that is here rendert d 
" pillar." It is supposed to have been 
an elevated stand or platform, and some 
commentators think it identical with the 
brazen scaffold which Solomon built in 
the center of the temple court. See 
2 Chron. vi. 13; xxiii, 13. 



348.— BOW AND ARROWS. 

XIII, 15. Elisha said, unto him, 
Take bow and. arrows. And he 
took unto him bow and arrows. 

1. The bow is a very ancient weapon, 
and early mention is made of it in 
the Bible. Ishmael became an archer. 
Gen. xxi, 20. Isaac sent Esau to get 
venison by means of the bow. Gen. 
xxvii, 3. It also came into early use 
as a weapon of war. Gen. xlviii, 22. 
Bows were made of various materials : 
wood, horn, and even ivory, were used. 
Sometimes the wood and horn were 
united in the bow, the wood being 
backed with horn. Metallic bows were 




Egyptian Quivers a.nt> Bows. 



n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. * 179 

also used. See Job xx, 24 ; Psa. xviii, 34. Bows were of various shapes. 
The Egyptian bow — a round piece of wood from five feet to five and a 
half long — was either nearly straight, with a slight curve at each end, or 
else showed a deep curve in the center when unstrung. 

Assyrian bows were sometimes curved and sometimes angular. They 
were shorter than the Egyptian bows. The strings of ancient bows were 
of leather thongs, horse hair, hide, or catgut. Various modes were adopted 
for bending the bow, the hand, the knee, or the foot being used. It was 
probably most usually bent by the aid of the foot, since darak, the word 
commonly used in speaking of bending the bow, literally means to "tread." 

2. The arrows were made of reed or wood and tipped with metal or horn. 
They were sometimes feathered, though not always. From Psa. xxxviii, 2, 
we infer that they sometimes had barbed points. 

349.— MODE OF DECLARING WAR. 
XIII, 17. He said, Open the window eastward. And he opened 
it. Then Elisha said, Shoot. And he shot. 

This was an ancient method of declaring war, and is often referred to in 
ancient and classical writings. A herald came to the confines of the enemy's 
territory, and, after observing certain solemnities, cried with a loud voice. " I 
wage war against you," at the same time assigning the reasons for the war. 
He then shot an arrow or threw a spear into the country to be invaded, 
which was considered sufficient warning of warlike intentions. Thirty days 
were allowed for peaceable settlement; if no such settlement was readied 
during that time, hostilities began at the expiration of it. 

350.— HEBREW MODE OF BURIAL. 
XIII, 21. It came to pass, as they were burying a man, that, 
behold, they spied a band of men ; and they east the man 
into the sepuleher of Elisha : and when the man was let 
down, and touched the bones of Elisha, he revived, and stood 
up on his feet. 

To understand this text fully, it is necessary to remember that among the 
Israelites the dead were not buried in coffins as with us. The Egyptians 
sometimes used coffins, (see note on Gen. 1, 26 :) but the Israelites, who 
brought many Egyptian customs with them into Palestine, did not adopt this 
custom. They wrapped their dead in linen cloths and laid them in the tomb. 
See note on John xix, 40. Thus the man mentioned in the text was about 
to be buried when his friends saw the Moabites. Seeing that they could not 
reach the grave prepared for him without being perceived by the enemy, 
they quickly rolled away the stone from Elisha's sepuleher, near which they 
were, and put the corpse there. As there was no coffin for either body, the 
body of the newly dead could easily touch the bones of the buried prophet. 



180 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Kings. 

351.— SUCCOTH-BENOTH— HEATHEN GODS. 

XVII, 80, 31. The men of Babylon made Sueeoth-benoth, and 
the men of Cuth made Nergal, and the men of Hamath made 
Ashima. And the Avites made Nibhaz and Tartak, and the 
Sepharvites burnt their children in fire to Adrammeleeh and 
Anammeleeh, the gods of Sepharvaim. 

1. The precise meaning of Succoth-benoth is not known. Its literal signifi- 
cation is, "booths of the daughters ; " and it is supposed to be, not the name of 
a god, but of places where women abandoned themselves to impure rites con 
nected with the worship of Babylonian deities. Sir H. Rawlinson believes 
that the word represents the Chaldee goddess Zir-banit, worshiped at Baby- 
lon and called queen of the place. Gesenius suggests that " perhaps it should 
read Succoth-bamoth, the booths in high places, consecrated to idols." 

2. Nergal was a well-known Assyrian deity. The word signifies " great 
man" or "hero." He is called by various names on the monuments: "the 
great brother; " "the storm ruler; " "the god of battles; " " the god of the 
chase." The last is his principal title, and he seems to have been the chief 
patron of hunting, which fact has led some to believe that he represented the 
deified hero Nimrod. The name of Nergal often appears on Assyrian seals 
and cylinders, and his symbol was a man-lion, or human-headed lion with 
eagle's wings. Astronomically, Nergal corresponds to Mars. 

3. Ashima was a god of the people of Hamath. The majority of Jew- 
ish writers assert that this deity was worshiped under the form of a goat 
without wool; others say under the form of a lamb. The goat is found 
among sacred animals on Babylonian monuments. This would make 
Ashima correspond to the Egyptian Mendes and the Greek Pan. It is also 
supposed by some writers that Ashima was the same as the Phenician god 
Esmun, the Phenician Esculapius, to whom were also attributed the charac- 
teristics of Pan. 

4. Nibhaz was a god of the Avites, but nothing is known with certainty 
of the peculiarities of the deity or the shape of the idol. The Hebrew inter- 
preters say that the idol was in the form of a man with the head of a dog. 
The Egyptians worshiped the dog, and, according to some writers, their god 
Anubis was represented by a man with a dog's head, though Wilkinson 
asserts that the head is that of a jackal. The family relation of the two 
animals is, however, sufficiently near for the purposes of idolatry. 

5. Tartak was another Avite deity. Some Jewish writers suppose the 
idol to have been in the form of an ass ; but others assert that this is mere 
conjecture, and that the name, which they render hero of darkness, has 
reference to some planet of supposed malign influence, such as Mars or 
Saturn. 

6. Adrammeleeh was a god of the Sepharvites, and is supposed to be iden- 



n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 181 

1ical with Molech, for a description of which deity see note on Lev. xviii, 21. 
Rawlinson identifies Adrammelech with the Chaldean god San or Sansi. 

7. Anammelech was also a god of the Sepharvites. No satisfactory 
etymology of the name has been found. Some suppose this deity to be re- 
presented by the Arabian constellation Cepheus, containing the shepherd and 
the sheep. Some authorities give the idol the figure of a horse, others tha 1 , 
of a pheasant or a quail. Human sacrifices were offered to this god as well 
as to Adrammelech. 

352.— DEPORTATION. 
XVIII, 11. The king of Assyria did carry away Israel unto 
Assyria, and put them in Halah and in Habor by the river 
of Gozan, and in the cities of the Medes. 

The practice of carrying into captivity all the inhabitants of a city or of a 
section of country was in use by the Assyrians from a very early period of 
their history, and is frequently referred to and illustrated on their monu- 
ments. " In the most flourishing period of their dominion — the reigns of 
Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon — it prevailed mi st widely, and was car- 
ried to the greatest extent. Chaldeans were transported into Armenia ; Jews 
and Israelites into Assyria and Media; Arabians, Babylonians, Lusianians, 
and Persians into Palestine — the most distant portions of the empire changed 
inhabitants, and no sooner did a people become troublesome from its patriot- 
ism and love of independence than it was weakened by dispersion, and its 
spirit subdued by a severance of all its social associations." — Rawlinson, 
Five Great Monarchies, vol. ii, p. 238. 

Tiglath Pileser carried a large number of captives to Assyria twenty 
years before the captivity referred to in the text. See 2 Kings xv, 29. Eight 
years after this Sennacherib took "the fenced cities of Judah." 2 Kings 
xviii, 13. An account of this event is given on one of the Assyrian monu- 
ments. The king claims to have carried away over two hundred thousand 
of the inhabitants. More than a hundred years after this Nebuchadnezzar, 
king of Babylon, invaded Judea, and by several distinct deportations carried 
the people into captivity. See 2 Kings xxiv, 14; xxv, 11; 2 Chron. 
xxxvi, 20; Jer. Hi, 28-30. 

353.— VARIOUS USES OF THE GRAPE. 
XVIII, 32. A land of corn and wine, a land of bread and 
vineyards, a land of oil olive and of honey. 

An American missionary in Turkey states that in some districts grapes 
are so pleutiful that, with oil and bread, they form the chief nourishment 
of the people. Thus it was, according to the text, in Palestine and in As- 
syria in the days of Hezekiah. Each was " a land of bread and vineyards." 

The same, writer, in speaking of the various uses of the grape as a staple 
food of the people, enumerates fifteen different articles made from that fruit. 



182 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Kings. 

Among them are preserves, jellies, and confectionery, made of the fresh 
juice; pickles, molasses, and sugar; besides wine and brandy, and other 
more familiar preparations. See Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. v, pp. 283, 287. 

354.— CAPTIVE GODS. 

XYIII, 34 Where are the gods of Hamath, and of Arpad ? 
where are the gods of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Ivah? 

The Assyrian monuments give evidence of a custom which illustrates the 
haughty language of this text. It was the practice of Assyrian conquerors 
to take the idols which they found in the temples of the people whom they 
subdued and convey them to Assyria, where they were assigned a place in 
Assyrian temples as captive gods. Hence Sennacherib spoke to the Jews by 
his embassador informing them that the Assyrian deity was so powerful that 
none other could cope with him. The gods of all other people against whom 
the Assyrians had fought had been captured, and it was in vain for the Jews 
to expect their god to save them. 

355.— NISROCH. 

XIX, 37. As he was worshiping in the house of JSTisroeh his 
god. 

Nisroch was an idol of Nineveh, concerning which there have been vari- 
ous conjectures. The rabbins affirmed that it was made out of one of the 
planks of Noah's ark. Others supposed it to be an image of the dove which 
Noah sent out from the ark. Some have thought the planet Saturn to be 
represented by it. and some the constellation of the eagle. Others have sup- 
posed Nisroch to be a representation of Asshur, the deified patriarch and 
head of the Assyrian pantheon. 

These various opinions are sufficient to show the obscurity connected with 
the subject. The etymology of the word, which occurs only here and in 
Isa. xxxvii, 38, is uncertain. Some philologists think that Nisroch is not a 
correct reading, while others suppose the word to mean the great eagle. This 
bird was held in great veneration by the ancient Persians, and was also 
worshiped by the Arabians before the time of Mohammed. Prom the fre- 
quent appearance on the Assyrian sculptures of a human figure with the 
head of an eagle or a hawk, Layard conjectured that this was the repre- 
sentation of Nisroch, and this has so often been asserted that many imagine 
that whenever they see a picture of one of these hawk-headed figures they 
see a picture of Nisroch. Rawlinson, however, asserts the contrary, and 
says that the hawk-headed figure is more like a subordinate character, an 
attendant genius, than a god. No name of any god has yet been discovered 
on the monuments which bears anv resemblance to Nisroch. 



n Kings.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 183 

356. —SUN-DIALS. 

XX, 11. Isaiah, the prophet cried, unto the Lord: and he 
brought the shadow ten degrees backward, by which it had 
gone down in the dial of Ahaz. 

Maaloth, "dial," is the same word that is rendered "degrees" in this 
verse, and "stairs " in 2 Kings ix, 13. This aud the parallel passage in Isa. 
xxxviii, 8, are the only places where the word "dial" occurs. Our trans- 
lators probably judged correctly in supposing from the context that by 
maaloth in this place some instrument for measuring time is meant; but 
what was its peculiar shape is left to conjecture. The Babylonians were 
doubtless the originators of the sun-dial. Herodotus states that the Greeks 
derived it from them, {Euterpe, chap, cix;) and it is highly probable that 
king Ahaz, after whom this dial in the palace court was named, obtaiued the 
idea from Babylon. 

Some think this dial was a hemispherical cavity in a horizontal square stone, 
with the gnomon in the middle, the shadow of which, falling on different 
lines cut in the hollow surface, marked the hours of the day. Others imagine 
a vertical index surrounded by twelve concentric lines. It may have been, 
as some suppose, a pillar set up in an open elevated place, with encircling 
steps on which the shadows fell; or stairs so constructed that the shadow 
of an obelisk or of a gnomon on the top platform might indicate the hours. 

The "degrees," however, must have marked shorter periods than hours, 
since ten forward and ten backward are spoken of as only a part of the 
whole number of degrees. See Keil, Commentary, in loco. 

It has been sugges'ed that the "stairs" from which Jehu was proclaimed 
king, as recorded in 2 Kings ix, 13, were the same as the "dial " of Ahaz. 
As already noted, the same word, maaloth, represents both. The idea is that 
Jehu was taken up the different steps of the dial until he reached the top 
pla'form, where he was placed by the side of the gnomon, when the trumpets 
were blown and the formal announcement was made, " Jehu is king." See 
Clarke, Commentary on 2 Kings ix, 13. 

357.— ROYAL TREASURES. 

XX, 13. Hezekiah hearkened unto them, and showed them 

all the house of his precious things, the silver, and the gold, 

and the spices, and the precious ointment, and all the house 

of his armor, and all that was found in his treasures. 

Tt has long been the custom for Eastern princes to amass great quantities 
of treasure merely for ostentation. The kings of Judah may have had a 
similar custom. Burder (Oriental Customs, No. 433) tells of the treasure of 
an Eastern monarch which was so immense that two unusually large cellars 
or warehouses were not sufficient to hold it. It consisted of precious stones 

12 



184: BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [H Kings. 

plates of gold, and gold coin enough to load a hundred mules. It had been 
collected by twelve of his predecessors, and it was said that he had in his 
treasury a coffer three spans long and two broad full of precious stones of 
incalculable value. 

358.— HORSES USED FOR IDOLATROUS PURPOSES. 
XXIII, 11. He took away the horses that the kings of Judah 
had given to the sun. 

Allusion is here made to a peculiar form of sun-worship. Among the 
Persians horses were considered sacred to the sun. The king of Persia 
when lie sacrificed offered a white horse to that luminary. The people, when 
they wished to sacrifice to the sun, mounted their horses in the early morn- 
ing and rode toward the rising orb as if to salute it, and then offered the 
noble victims to it in sacrifice. See Gale's Court of the Gentiles, book ii, 
chap, viii, p. 115. 

The kings of Judah had evidently heard of this custom, and imitated it : 
though some commentators doubt that they actually slew the animals, sup- 
posing that they simply went in state in the early morning to see the sun rise 
and to adore it. Some have even imagined that these horses were not real, but 
merely statues, made of wood, stone, or metal, which stood at the entrance 
of the temple. The mention made of the " chariots of the sun " in the latter 
part of the verse seems, however, to indicate that living animals were 
intended, and that they were harnessed to these chariots. Whether they 
were really sacrificed or not, they were kept and used for idolatrous purposes, 
and therefore became proper subjects of confiscation. 

359.— GRAVE-STONES. 
XXIII, 17. He said, What title is that that I see ? And the men 
of the city told him, It is the sepuleher of the man of God. 

This refers to the custom of marking the graves of the dead by some dis- 
tinguishing sign. The word here rendered "title" is the same that in Ezek. 
xxxix, 15, is rendered " sign." It means a pillar set up to designate a grave. 
and served the twofold purpose of a tablet for an epitaph, and also as a sign 
to warn all passers-by lest they should become ceremonially unclean by 
touching the grave. The absence of any such sign is what is referred to in 
Luke xi, 44 : " "Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites ! for ye are 
as graves which appear not, and the men that walk over them are not aware 
of them." 

Dr. Shaw says of the cemeteries in Barbary: "The graves are all dis- 
tinct and separate ; each of them having a stone, placed upright, both 
at the head and feet, inscribed with the name of the deceased. — Travels, 
p. 219. 



N 



II Kings.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



185 




Blinding a Prisoner. 



360.— PRISONERS BLINDED— FETTERS. 
XXV, 7. They slew the sons of Zedekiah before his eyes, and 
put out the eyes of Zedekiah, and bound him with fetters of 
brass, and carried him to Babylon. See also Jer. xxxix, 7 ; lii, 11. 

1. Blinding has long been a common 
Oriental punishment. See Judg. xvi, 21 ; 
1 Sam. xi, 2. In Persia, during the titre 
of the younger Cyrus, men deprived of 
their sight for crimes were a common 
spectacle along the highway. This pen- 
alty is still inflicted by the Persians on 
princes who are declared to have forfeit- 
ed their right to the throne. Chardin 
states that one mode of blinding was by 
passing a red-hot copper plate before the 
eyes. This did not always produce total 
blindness, and sometimes the point of a 
dagger or of a spear was thrust into the 
eye. The Babylonians and the Assyri- 
ans, as well as the Persians, made use 
of the same cruel punishment. Frequent representations of it are found 
on the ancient sculptures. The engraving represents part of a scene from 
a marble slab discovered at Khorsabad. The Assyrian king has several 
prisoners brought before him to be blinded. In his left hand he holds the 
cords at the end of which are hooks inserted in the prisoner's lips. See 
note on Isa. xxxvii, 29. In his right hand is a spear, which he thrusts into 
the eyes. 

2. Fetters were of various shapes and materials. Those which were put 
on Zedekiah were made of brass or copper ; so also were those with which 

Samson was fastened. 
Judges xvi, 21. There 
is in the British Mu- 
seum a pair of bronze 
fetters, brought from 
Nineveh, wh ch weigh 
72. — Bronze Fetters from Nineveh. eioht pounds eleven 

ounces, and measure sixteen and a half inches in length. These probably 
resemble the fetters put on Zedekiah. "The rings which inclose the ankles 
are thinner than the other part, so that they could be hammered smaller 
after the feet had been passed through them. One of these rings has been 
broken, and when whole the fetters may have weighed about nine pounds." 
— Sharpe's Bible Texts Illustrated. 




186 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Chronicles. 



I. CHRONICLES. 

361.— MARRIAGE OF SLAVE TO MASTER'S DAUGHTER. 

II, 34, 35. Now Sheshan had no sons, but daughters. And 
Sheshan had a servant, an Egyptian, whose name was Jarha. 
And Sheshan gave his daughter to Jarha his servant to wife. 

According to the Mosaic law, daughters were not to be married out of the 
tribe to which they belonged. This was commanded in order to keep the 
inheritance of each tribe to itself. See Numbers, chapter xxxvi. In the 
text, Sheshan, who had no sons, is represented as marrying his daughter to 
an Egyptian, and that Egyptian a servant. Harmer states that though this 
may have been contrary to the law of Moses, it was in accordance with a 
custom frequently practiced in the East. He quotes from one of Maillet's 
letters, in which an account is given of one Hassan, who had been a slave to 
KameL the " Kiaia of the Asaphs of Cairo, that is, colonel of four or five 
thousand men who go under that name." " Kamel," says Maillet, "accord- 
ing to the custom of the country, gave him one of his daughters in marriage, 
and left him at his death one part of the great riches he had amassed to- 
gether in the course of a long and prosperous life." He also succeeded his 
master in his office. — Observations, vol. iv, p. 298. 

362.— TIDINGS CARRIED TO IDOLS. 

X, 9. They took his head, and his armor, and sent into the 
land of the Philistines round about to carry tidings unto their 
idols. 

The Hindoos have a custom corresponding to this. When they gain a 
victory over their enemies they carry the tidings to their idols with great 
pomp and ceremony. In the common affairs of life the same practice is 
resorted to. A man delivered from prison, or from the wicked scheme of his 
enemies, always goes to his gods to carry the news. Roberts gives the fol- 
lowing as a specimen of the formal speech used on such occasions : " Ah I 
Swamy, you know Muttoo wanted to ruin me ; he therefore forged a deed in 
my name, and tried to get my estates. But I resisted him, and it has just 
been decided before the court that he is guilty. I am therefore come to 
praise you, Swamy!" — Oriental Illustrations, p. 229. 

363.— STONE-BOWS. 
XII, 2. They were armed with bows, and could use both the 
right hand and the left in hurling stones and shooting arrows 
out of a bow. 

Tt will be noticed that the words hurling and shooting have been supplied 
by the translators. Without them the reading would be, " could use both 



I Chronicles.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 187 

the right hand and the left in stones and arrows out of a bow." This has 
led some to think that there was in use among the Hebrews a kind of bow 
for shooting stones as well as arrows ; an instrument corresponding to the 
stone-bow in use in the Middle Ages. These stone-bows of David's men may- 
have suggested the invention, two hundred and fifty years later, of the 
heavier instruments of a similar character to be used in sieges. See note 
on 2 Chron. xxvi, 15. 

364.— AMEN. 
XVI, 36. All the people said, Amen, and. praised the Lord. 

Amen literally means firm, from aman, to prop, to support. Its figurative 
meaning is faithful. Its use is designed as a confirmatory response, and the 
custom is very ancient. See Num. v, 22 ; Deut. xxvii, 15-26. 

" The Jewish doctors give three rules for pronouncing the word : 
1. That it be not pronounced too hastily and swiftly, but with a grave and 
distinct voice. 2. That it be not louder than the tone of him that blessed. 
3. It was to be expressed in faith, with a certain persuasion that God would 
bless them and hear their prayer." — Bdrder, Oriental Customs, No. 438. 

It is also customary for the Mohammedans, at the close of every public 
prayer, to say, Amen. 

365.— THE HORN. 

XXV, 5. All these were the sons of Heman the king's seer in 
the words of God, to lift up the horn. 

Some of the earliest wind instruments were no doubt made of the horns 
of animals, and when afterward metals were used in their manufacture they 
retained more or less of the original shape, and continued to be called by the 
original name. The difference between the keren, "horn," and the shophar, 
"trumpet," "cornet," is supposed to have been principally in the shape, the 
latter having less of a curved shape than the former. See note on Psa. 
xcviii, 6. The keren is mentioned as a musical instrument in Josh, vi, 5, and 
in Dan. iii, 5, 7, 10, 15. In the passage in Daniel it is translated "cornet." 



II. CHRONICLES. 

366.— FORTIFIED CITIES. 
VIII, 5. Also he built Beth-horon the upper, and Beth-horon 
the nether, fenced cities, with walls, gates, and bars. 

1. Fortifications are as ancient as cities ; indeed, some writers assert that 
the difference, ano'ently, between cities and villages was simply the differ- 



188 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Chronicles. 



ence between walled and unwalled towns. The Egyptian and Assyrian 
sculptures contain representations of " fenced cities " with, walls of squared 

stone or squared 
timber on the sum- 
mit of scarped rocks. 
Some of the fenced 
cities of Scripture 
are thought to have 
been protected by 
stockades of wood. 
Sometimes there 
was more than one 
See 2 Kings xxv, 4 ; 




feom Babylonian Cotns. 



wall to a fortified city. It was thus with Jerusalem. 
2 Chron. xxxii, 5. Sometimes there was a ditch outside the wall, and a low 
wall or rampart protecting that. At regular distances on the wall there were 
towers for the purposes of watching and defense. See 2 Kings ix, 17 ; 
2 Chron. xx vi, 15. The gates were strongly protected with bolts or bars 
of brass or iron. Sometimes there was built at some central point within 
the city a citadel or stronghold which might resist attack even after the walls 
were destroyed. 

2. To "build" a city often meant not to give a new town a location, and 
to erect the houses, but to build walls around a town already inhabited. It 
was thus that Solomon built the two Beth-horons mentioned in the text. 
Thus Rehoboam "built" the cities named in 2 Chron. xi, 5-10. So Jero- 
boam "built" Shechem and Penuel, (1 Kings xii, 25.) and Hiel "built" 
Jericho, (1 Kings xvi, 34.) a city which had been inhabited long before. 
Judges i, 16; iii, 13. 

367.— CREMATION. 
XVI, 14. Laid, him in the bed. which was filled with sweet 
odors and divers kinds of spiees prepared by the apothecaries' 
art : and they made a very great burning for him. 

There is a division of opinion among commentators concerning the mean- 
ing of the last clause in this verse. Some of the best authorities believe 
that the '' very great burning " was the burning of the odoriferous substances 
which were brought together. They understand that a large quantity of 
these substances was collected and placed in the sepulcher of Asa, and that 
after these were burned the body of the dead king was laid upon the per- 
fumed ashes, as on a bed. This is also referred to in the promise which was 
made to Zedekiah concerning his burial. Jer. xxxiv, 5. It is likewise 
thought to have been this which was denied to Jehoram, on the occasion of 
his death, because of his wickedness. 2 Chron. xxi, 19. 

On the other hand, it is asserted that burning spices and perfumes in this 



n Chronicles.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 189 

way for the dead does not find a parallel in the customs of any nation ancient 
or modern ; and that these various passages refer to the burning of the body 
together with the spices on a funeral pile. Jahn says, " The ancient Hebrews 
considered burning the body a matter of very great reproach, and rarehy did it 
except when they wished, together with the greatest punishment, to inflict 
the greatest ignominy." Gen. xxxviii, 24. He considers the burning of 
Saul and of his sons (L Sam. xxxi, 12) an exceptional instance, designed by 
their friends to prevent any further indignities from the Philistines. The 
sentiment in reference to the burning of bodies afterward underwent a 
change. A hundred and forty years after Saul's death the body of Asa was 
burnt, and the event is spoken of by the historian not as a new thing, but as 
a custom already established. Over a century later we find the same custom 
referred to. See Amos vi, 10. In time the revolution of sentiment became 
so complete that while burning was considered the most distinguished honor, 
not to be burned was regarded the most signal disgrace, as in the case of 
Jehoram already mentioned. Another change of sentiment eventually took 
place. After the captivity the Jews conceived a great hatred to this rite, 
and the Talmndists endeavored to explain the passages respecting it as refer- 
ring to the burning of the aromatic substances alone. See Jahn's Arche- 
ology, § 210. 

Roberts takes substantially the same view, and gives a detailed account 
of the Hindoo method of cremation. The Hindoos burn the bodies of nearly 
all their illustrious dead, and it is considered disgraceful not to have the 
ceremony performed. They first wash the corpse with water mingled with 
fragrant oils and scented waters. The body is then placed on a bed, or on a 
chariot covered with crimson cloth, and is carried on men's shoulders to the 
place of burning. The funeral pile is seldom more than five feet high, and 
when prepared for a great man is made of sandal and other aromatic woods, to 
which are added sweet odors and spices. The body is then placed on the 
pile, and the son or nearest relative has his head shaved. Then the s n 
takes a torch and, turning his head away from the pile, sets fire to it, and 
returns home. Those who remain to see the corpse consumed throw 
clarified butter and oils on the fire to hasten the combustion. See Roberts' 
Oriental Illustrations, p. 234. 

36§.— DEATH BY BEING THROWN FROM A ROCK. 

XXV, 12. Brought them unto the top of the roek, and cast them 
down from the top of the roek, that they all were broken in 
pieces. 

This was a very ancient punishment, practiced among different nations. 
In Greece, accordiug to the Delphian law, those who were guilty of sacrilege 
were punished in this manner. The Romans also inflicted the same punish- 
ment for various offenses. Among the Turks and the Persians a similar 



190 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Chronicles. 



mode of capital punishment was adopted. Selden has suggested that the 
mode of Jezebel's death is an illustration of this custom. 2 Kings ix, 33. 

369.— TOWERS. 
XXVI, 10. He built towers in the desert. 

The duties of shepherds often led them into wild districts where their 
lives were in danger from wandering brigands. Hence it became necessary 

to erect towers into 
which they might re- 
tire for safety from the 
attacks of large forces, 
and from which they 
could drive off the 
marauders. The rfa- 
son assigned for build- 
ing the towers by Uz- 
ziah is the same as 
that giveu for digging 
the wells: " for lie had 
much cattle." See also 
2 Chron. xxvii, 4. 
A beautiful figurative 
use is made of this 
custom in Psa. lxi, 3, 
and in Prov. xviii, 10. 
Towers were also built 
in vineyards. See note 
on Matt, xxi, 33. 

TovEits in tiik Desert. 




3T0.— ENGINES OF WAR. 
XXVI, 15. He made in Jerusalem engines, invented by cunning 
men, to be on the towers and upon the bulwarks, to shoot 
arrows and great stones withal. 

The invention of these engines of war marks an era in warfare, since by 
their use the power of an army was greatly increased whether for attack or 
defense. They were simply machine bows and slings, which, by the appli- 
cation of mechanical principles, were made to throw heavier projectiles than 
the smaller weapons which were held in the hand. We have here doubtless 
the origin of the batistes and catapultce which afterward became so famous in 
Roman warfare. The balista was used to shoot stones; the cotapulta pro- 
jected darts. Historians mention three sizes of bali'trr, which were graded 



II Chronicles.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 191 

according to the weight of the stones they threw, namely : a half hundred 
weight, a whole hundred weight, and three hundred weight. Occasionally 
there were some used which threw stones as light as two pounds. Several 
balls of limestone, which were found in the excavations in Jerusalem in 1869, 
are thought to have been used as missiles and hurled from a balista. Cata- 
pultce were denominated according to the length of the darts thrown from 
them. No exact idea can now be had of the forms of these engines. The 
Romans classified them under the generic title of tormentum, because of the 
twisting of the hairs, thongs, and vegetable fibers from which the elastic 
string was made which gave impetus to the projectile. See Smith's Did. 
Class. Antiq., s. v. Tormentum. These engines were often used from the top 
of a " mount '' or inclined plane. See note on Ezek. iv, 2. 

371.— CHANGE OF NAME. 

XXXVI, 4. The king of Egypt made Eliakim his brother king 
over Judah and Jerusalem, and. turned his name to Jehoiakim. 

It has long been a custom among Eastern people to change their names on 
the occurrence of some great event in life. It was in accordance with the 
divine command at the time of the renewal of the covenant that the name 
of Abrarn was changed to Abraham, (Gen. xvii, 5 ; Neh. ix, 7,) and that 
of Sarai to Sarah. Gen. xvii, 15. Jacob's name was changed to Israel, in 
commemoration of his prevailing prayer. G-en. xxxii, 28; xxxv, 10. The 
king of Egypt changed the name of Joseph to Zaphnath-paaneah, because 
of his ability to reveal secrets. Gen. xli, 45. Another king of Egypt sub- 
sequently changed the name of Eliakim the sou of Josiah to Jehoiakim, when 
he made him king of Judah, as narrated in the text, and also in 2 Kings 
xxiii, 34. So when the king of Babylon made Mattaniah king he changed 
his name to Zedekiah. 2 Kings xxiv, 17. In like manner the name of Ha- 
dassah was changed to Esther. Esth. ii, 7. So, also, when Nebuchadnezzar 
wished to have a few of the young Jewish prisoners taught in the Chaldean 
language and customs, he changed their names from Daniel, Hananiah, 
Mishael, and Azariah, to Belteshazzar, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego. 
Dan. i, 6, 7. 

The custom is further illustrated by Sir John Chardin in his Travels in 
Persia. He states that KiDg Sefi, the first years of whose reign were 
unhappy on account of wars and famine in many of the Persian provinces, 
was persuaded by his counselors to change his name as a means of chang- 
ing the tide of fortune, since there must be about the name of Sefi some 
hidden fatal power of evil. He was, therefore, crowned anew in the year 
1666 under the name of Solyman III. All seals, coins, and other public 
symbols that had on them the name of Sefi. were broken, the same as if the 
king" had been dead, and his successor had taken his place upon the throne. 



192 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezra. 



EZRA. 
372.— NETHINIM. 



II, 43. The Nethinim. 



Th^se were men who assisted the Levites in performing the meanest 
offices connected with the temple service. Part of them lived in Jerusalem, 
and part were distributed among the Levitical cities. They are supposed to 
have been Canaanites reduced to servitude, (Josh, ix, 21-27,) and captives 
taken in war, who were set apart to this service, and therefore called 
nethinim : the given, the devoted. They were held in low esteem by the Jews, 
occupying a social position even lower than the mamzer, or illegitimate off- 
spring. 

373.— THE PERSIAN DARIC. 

II, 69. Threescore and one thousand, drams of gold. 

The coin referred to here and in chapter viii, 27, and also in Neh. 
vii, 71, 72, is the Persian daric. It was a thick piece of gold having on 

§^p*. one side the figure of a king with bow and 

/ v£& Ff\ javelin, or bow and dagger, and on the 
/ 1f||s£^ \ other an irregular oblong depression. The 
% J^M^>J weight of the daric was from 124 to 129 
%£fc*^Ezd r grains troy. Its value has been variously 
x^gfj^ estimated; it was probably not far from 
75— Pebsiax Daeic. six dollars, gold. 

. 374.— MONEY TABLETS. 

III, 7. They gave money also unto the masons, and to the 
carpenters. 

The particular kind of money which was given to these workmen is not 
here mentioned. It may have been gold and silver; perhaps it was clay ; for 
it is a fact worth mentioning that in Babylonia and in Persia at that very timo 
there were in use certain clay tablets which are supposed by some writers to 
have been used for the same purpose that we now use bank-notes! Among 
other curious things which Loftus unearthed at Warka were about forty 
li small tablets of unbaked clay, covered on both sides with minute 
characters." They were in length from two inches to four and a half, and 
in breadth from one inch to three. They had on them the names of various 
kings, and dates ranging from 626 to 525 B. C. Among these was the name 
of Cyrus, the king who directed the work for which the money was given 
according to the text. Sir Henry Rawlinson, who examined the inscriptions, 
says that the tablets "seemed to be notes issued by the government for 



Ezra.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 193 

the convenience of circulation, representing a certain value, which was 
always expressed in measures of weight, of gold or silver, and redeemable 
on presentation at the royal treasury." Loftus adds, "These tablets were, 
in point of fact, the equivalents of our own bank-notes, and prove that a 
system of artificial currency prevailed in Babylonia, and also in Persia, at an 
unprecedented early age — centuries before the introduction of paper or 
printing." — Travels in Chaldea and Sitsiana, p. 222. 

375.— THE TEMPLE OF ZERUBBABEL. 
VI, 3, 4. Let the house be builded, the plaee where they of- 
fered, sacrifices, and. let the foundations thereof be strongly- 
laid ; the height thereof threescore cubits, and the breadth 
thereof threescore cubits ; with three rows of great stones, and 
a row of new timber. 

This temple, sometimes called the second temple, and sometimes the 
temple of Zerubbabel, was built on the site of the first, or Solomon's 
temple. We have not so definite a description given of this as we have of 
Solomon's temple. The second temple was larger than the first. The 
" rows." of stones are supposed to refer to three stories of chambers, such as 
were attached to Solomon's temple, and on these was placed an additional 
story of wood. The temple of Zerubbabel, though of greater size than that 
of Solomon, was inferior to it in magnificence. According to Jewish author- 
ities its altar of burnt-offering was of stone instead of brass, and it had but 
one table of show-bread and but one candlestick. It is also said that the 
sanctuary was entirely empty, excepting that in place of the ark of the cov- 
enant a stone was set three fingers high, on which the high priest placed the 
censer and sprinkled the blood of atonement. Some suppose, however, 
that a new ark was made and set in the sanctuary. The rabbins reckon five 
different important features of the first temple which were wanting in the 
second: 1. The Ark of the Covenant. 2. The Sacred Fire. 3. The She- 
kinah. 4. The Holy Spirit. 5. The answer by Urim and Thummim. Some 
of these distinctions are, however, thought b} r more sober writers to be a 
little fanciful. 

376.— ADAR. 
VI, 15. This house was finished on the third day of the 
month Adar. 

This was the closing month of the year, and corresponded very nearly to 
our month of March. , 



194 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Nehemiah. 



NEHEMIAH. 

377.— CHISLEU. 
I, 1. It came to pass in the month Chisleu. 

This corresponded very nearly to our mouth of December. 



I, 11. 



378.— THE ROYAL BUTLER. 
For I was the king's cup- bearer. 



The office of royal cup-bearer or butler is of high antiquity, and was a place 
of great honor in the Persian court. The cup-bearer, being in the daily 
presence of the king, and seeing him at his sea- 
sons of relaxation from care, had many oppor- 
tunities of ingratiating himself into the good-will 
of the monarch, and thus doubtless obtained 
many favors which were denied others. Cup- 
bearers were generally eunuchs, and are often 
found represented on Assyrian monuments. In 
these representations they hold the cup in the 
left hand, and in the right hand a fly-flap made of 
the split leaves of the palm. A long napkin, 
richly embroidered and fringed, is thrown over 
the left shoidder for the king to wipe his lips 
with. Among the Medes and Persians the cup- 
bearer, before serving the king, took the wine 
into the cup from the vessels, and then poured a 
little into the palm of his left hand and drank it; 
so that if the wine were poisoned the king might 
ascertain it without running any personal risk. 
Pharaoh had cup-bearers to attend him. Gen. 
xl, 2. Solomon also had them. 1 Kings x, 5; 2 Chron. ix, 4. 




76.— The Royal Ctjp-bkarer. 



379.— SAFE-CONDUCT. 

II, 7. Moreover I said unto the king, If it please the king, let 
letters be given me to the governors beyond, the river, that 
they may convey me over till I come into Judah. 

It is still customary in many parts of the East to obtain letters of recom- 
mendation, or orders for safe conduct, when the traveler desires to visit 
different districts under one central authority. Without these he could not 
travel in comfort or safety ; but having them, those to whom he presents 
them are bonnd to protect him. Thus Nehemiah was able to travel safely 
throughout the Persian empire. 



Nehemiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 195 

3§0.— SHAKING THE LAP. 
Y, 18. Also I shook my lap, and. said, So God shake out 
every man from his house, and from his labor, that perform- 
eth not this promise, even thus be he shaken out, and 
emptied. 

The "lap " was a fold made in the outer garment, near the breast, for the 
reception of various articles. See note on Luke vi, 38. To shake this was 
equivalent to a curse, and to empty it was a significant suggestion of utter 
extermination. Roberts says that the natives of India always carry in their 
lap a pouch made of the leaf of cocoa or of some other tree, and that they are 
careful never to have the pouch entirely empty. They have in it money, 
areca nut, betel leaf, and tobacco. Even when they wish to find any article 
they never empty the pouch, but rather fumble about for a long time until 
they get hold of the object sought. They say if the pouch should become 
empty it might remain so for a long time. They also shake the lap of the 
robe when they curse each other. 

"When the Roman embassadors proposed the choice of peace or war to the 
Carthaginians they made use of a similar ceremony. " When the Roman 
embassadors entered the senate of Carthage They had their toga gathered up 
in their bosom. They said, ' We carry here peace and war ; you may have 
which you will.' The senate answered, 'You may give which you please.' 
They then shook their toga, and said, ' We bring you war.' To which all 
the senate answered, 'We cheerfully accept it.'" — Burder, Oriental 
Literature, No. 645. 

It was in a similar way that Nehemiah significantly suggested to the 
usurers of his time their utter extermination if they failed to keep the cov- 
enant of restitution which they had made. See also Acts xviii, 6. 

381.— LETTERS. 
YI 5. Then sent Sanballat his servant unto me in like man- 
ner the fifth time with an open letter in his hand. 

1. The first mention that is made in Scripture of a letter is of that which 
David sent to Joab. 2 Sam. xi. 14. We also read of the letters which 
Jezebel wrote in the name of Ahab. 1 Kings xxi, 8. The king of Syria 
wrote a letter to the king of Israel. 2 Kings v, 5-7. Jehu also wrote letters. 
2 Kings x, 1. Later on in the history more frequent mention is made of 
them. 

On what substance these ancient letters were written it is now impop 
to say. They may have been written on skins dressed for the purr 
paJm-leaves, or on papyrus, the use of which is now known to 
very ancient with the Egyptians, and from them neighboring 
have learned it. 



196 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Nehemiah. 

2. In Persia, as well as in some other Oriental lands, letters, when sent 
to persons of distinction, are generally, after being rolled up in a scroll, 
inclosed in a bag or purse, which is sometimes made of very elegant and 
costly material. The end of this purse is tied, closed over with clay or wax. 
and then sealed. See Isa. viii, 16; xxix, 11; Dan. xii, 4, 9; Rev. v, 4, 9; 
x, 4; xxii, 10. For the mode of sealing, see note on 1 Kings xxi, 8. This is 
considered a mark of respect, and a recognition of the rank or position of 
the person to whom it is sent. When sent to inferiors, or to persons whom 
the writer wishes to treat with contempt, the letters are uninclosed. This 
custom probably existed among the Persians in the time of Nehemiah, since 
special emphasis is in the text laid upon the fact that the letter was an open 
letter ; that is, as we understand it, that it was not inclosed in a bag, and 
therefore indicated the contempt which Sanballat had for Nehemiah. He 
treated him as a person of inferior position. 

382.— ELUL. 

VI, 15. The twenty and fifth day of the month Elul. 

This month corresponded very nearly with September of our calendar. 

383— TIRSHATHA. 

VII, 65. And the Tirshatha said unto them. 

This was the title of the Persian governor of Judea. Gesenius de- 
rives the word from the Persian torsh : " severe," " austere," which would 
make the meaning equivalent to your Severity. He compares it with 
the German gestrenger Herr, (that is, your ""Worship ; " but, literally, Severe 
Master,) a title which was formerly given to the magistrates of the free and 
imperial German cities. The English have a corresponding expression: 
" most dread Sovereign " 

See also Ezra ii, 63; Neh. vii, 70; viii, 9 ; x, 1. 

384.— SENDING PORTIONS. 

VIII, 10. Go your way, eat the fat, and drink the sweet, and 
send portions unto them for whom nothing is prepared. 

This has generally been interpreted to mean that the wants of the poor 

were to be supplied; but Harmer (Observations, vol. ii, p. 107) prefers to 

->fer it to the custom of sending a portion of a feast^to those who carnot 

1 come to it, especially to the relatives of those who give the feast, 

those in a state of mourning, who in their grief would make no 

n. In Esther ix, 19 it is said that among the ceremonies of the 

; m there was to be " sending portions one to another." In the 

r erse of the same chapter the order of Mordecai is given for 



Nehemiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 197 

keeping the feast, and it is directed "that they should make them days of 
feasting and joy, and of sending portions one to another, and gifts to the 
poor." Erom this verse it is evident that sending " gifts to the poor " is not 
the same thing as " sending portions one to another." This latter custom, 
however, may, in turn, be different from the one referred to in Nehemiah, and 
may mean that these pious Jews expressed their joy by a mutual exchange 
of the good things provided for the feast. This custom is alluded to in Rev. 
xi, 10, where the enemies of the " two witnesses" are represented as rejoic- 
ing over their death: "And they that dwell upon the earth shall rejoice 
over them, and make merry, and send gifts one to another ; because these 
two prophets tormented them that dwelt on the earth." 

3§5.— WOOD FOR THE SACRIFICES. 
X, 34. "We east the lots among the priests, the Levites, and 
the people, for the wood offering, to bring it into the house 
of our God, after the houses of our fathers, at times appointed 
year by year, to burn upon the altar of the Lord our God, as 
it is written in the law. 

The work of supplying the wood necessary for the altar fires was a part 
of the task assigned to the Nethinim. See note on Ezra ii, 43. On the occa- 
sion of the captivity these became scattered, and their organization was broken 
up, and though some Nethinim returned to Jerusalem, they were probably not 
so numerous as before. It became necessary, therefore, for all classes of the 
people to attend to this work, and the time of their doing it was regulated 
by lot. This work is what is called the " w r ood offering " in the text and in 
chapter xiii, 31. "We have no further mention of it in the Scriptures, but 
the Jewish writers give additional accounts of the manner in which the 
work was done. Different families had different times of the year assigned 
them for their share in the work. This was the origin of a great festival 
which was known by the name of the feast of wood-carrying, and was 
celebrated annually on a certain day in Ab, (August.) This was the last 
day of the year on which wood could be cut for this purpose, and all the 
people without distinction of tribe or grade brought wood to the temple on 
that day. The festival was universally and joyously kept ; no fasting or 
mourning was permitted. 

1*86— PLUCKING THE HAIR. 
XIII, 25. I contended with them, and cursed them, and smote 
certain of them, and plucked off their hair. 

This is equivalent to what we term " tearing the hair out by the roots." 
It was sometimes a self-inflicted suffering as a token of mourning, (see Ezra 
ix, 3,) sometimes an act of wanton persecution, (see Isa. 1, 6,) and sometimes 



198 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Esther. 



punishment, as represented in the text. It is said that the ancient Athenians 
punished adulterers by tearing the hair from the scalp and then covering 
the head with hot ashes. 



ESTHER. 



387.— THE COURT OF THE HOUSE. 

I, 5. In the court of the garden of the king's palace. 

The "court" of an Oriental house is the open space around which the 
house is built. The outside of the building shows to the observer hardly 

anything but blank walls, the privacy of 
the people being such that the interior of 
their dwellings is completely hidden from 
public gaze. The ordinary houses have but 
one court, but houses of a better class 
have two or three, and some of the best 
louses in Damascus have seven courts. 
The palaces of kings had a number of 
courts. 

The courts are sometimes laid out in 
beautiful gardens containing various fruits 
and flowers; and trees are often planted 
the olive, the pomegranate. To this the 
'I am like a green olive-tree in the house 




77. — Gkound-plan of House 



there: the palm, the cypress, 
Psalmist alludes when he says. 
of God." Psa. lii, 8. Again, " The righteons shall flourish like the palm- 
tree : he shall grow like a cedar in Lebanon. Those that be planted in the 
house of the Lord shall flourish in the courts of our God." Psa. xcii, 12, 13. 
Sometimes the court is handsomely paved with marble, (see verse 6,) and 
has a fountain in the center. Cisterns are also built here. See note on 
2 Sam. xvii, 18, 19. 

The court usually has a covered walk nine or terf^et wide projecting 
from the house. This walk is generally on the four sides of the court, though 
sometimes only on one side. If the house is over one story high, the roof of 
this covered walk forms a gallery, and is protected by a balustrade. This 
gallery is supported by pillars. Solomon is supposed to refer to this in 
Prov. ix, 1 : ""Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath hewn out her seven 



Esther.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 201 

pillars." See also Job ix, 6 ; xxvi, 11 ; Psa. lxxv, 3 ; Gal. ii, 9 ; 1 Tim. hi, 15 ; 
but on this last text see note on Gen. xxviii, 18. On occasions of feasting, 
the guests are often assembled in the court, as is related in the text. 

The rooms of the house open into the court. In some houses this opening 
is by means of doors ; but in others the rooms are divided from the court 
by a low partition only. Where the house is more than one story in height 
the stairs to the upper apartments are usually, though not always, in one 
corner of the court. 

The diagram on page 198 represents the ground-plan of an Oriental house. 
In the left-hand corner, at the bottom, is the door, which opens directly into 
the porch or entrance-hall. To enter the court it is necessary to cross this 
hall and go through an adjacent room. It can thus be seen how one might 
enter the porch and yet have no view of the interior arrangements of the 
house. In the center of the court, at the place marked A in the diagram, 
is the fountain or cistern. The small circles around the court mark the po- 
sitions of the pillars which support the gallery above, and the square and 
oblong spaces represent various apartments. The engraving on page 199 
gives a representation of the court of a house with tesselated marble pave- 
ment, garden, and fountain. 

Reference is made to the court in 1 Kings vii, 8, 9, 12; Neb. viii, 16; 
Esth. vi, 4, 5, etc. 

388.— CURTAINS— COUCHES. 
I, 6. Where were white, green, and. blue hangings, fast- 
ened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and 
pillars of marble : the beds were of gold and silver, upon a 
pavement of red, and blue, and white, and black marble. 

1. In the heat of summer an awning is sometimes stretched across the 
court from one gallery to another. Reference is thought to be made to this 
in Psa. civ, 2, and Isa. xlv, 1 2 ; and man} 7 - writers think that the text speaks of 
an awning of variegated colors thrown over the court-yard of the palace. 
In the ruins of the palace at Kliorsabad a small bronze lion was found of 
beautiful workmanship and fixed in a flagstone in the pavement of the court 
At intervals there were similar flagstones in the pavement, where it is 
evident that other lions had been placed. From the fact that this lion had 
a ring rising from his back, resembling the rings in the animal-shaped 
weights which have been found, (see note on Gen. xxiii, 16,) it is supposed 
that these bronze images were used in the pavement to fasten the cOrds of 
the awning which was spread over the court. 

Some authorities, however, suppose that the variegated hangings, instead 
of making an awning, were magnificent curtains suspended between the 
marble pillars of the court. This is the opinion of Professor Rawlinson, and 
also of Loftus. The latter excavated among the ruins of the great palace at 

13 



202 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Esther 

Susa, which he believes to have been the very palace referred to in the book 
of Esther. His investigations satisfied him that " the Great Hall at Susa 
consisted of several magnificent groups of columns, together having a 
frontage of three hundred and forty-three feet nine inches, and a depth of 
two hundred and forty-four feet. These groups were arranged into a central 
phalanx of thirty-six columns, (six rows of six each,) flanked on the west, 
north, and east by an equal number, disposed of in double rows of six each 
and distant from them sixty-four feet two inches." — Travels in Chaldea and 
SuMana, p. 367. He thinks that the colored curtains were hung around the 
central group of marble columns. 

2. It is customary to spread mats and carpets on the court pavement for 
tne accommodation of guests ; Ahasuerus with kingly magnificence placed 
costly couches. These couches of " gold and silver," on which the guests 
reclined in the palace court while they feasted, (see note on Matt, xxvi, 7,) 
may have been covered with cloth in which these materials were inter- 
woven, (see note on Prov. vii. 16,) or they may have been put on frames 
which were ornamented with the precious metals. Layard says that " chairs 
and couches adorned with feet of silver and other metals were looked upon 
as a great object of luxury in Persia." — Nineveh and its Remains, vol. ii, 
p. 300. According to Herodotus, the tables, thrones, and couches in the 
temple of Belus at Babylonia were of solid gold. 

3§9.— DRINKING CUSTOMS. 
T, 8. The drinking was according to the law ; none did com- 
pel: for so the king had appointed to all the officers of 
his house, that they should do according to every man's 
pleasure. 

Revelers of all nations seem to have had their peculiar drinking customs 
which were as binding as laws. Among the Egyptians, wine was offered 
before dinner commenced, and the guests also drank during the repast. 
Among the Greeks, each guest was obliged to keep the round or leave the 
company. "Drink, or be gone," was the proverb. At the Roman feasts, a 
master of the feast was chosen by throwing dice. He prescribed rules to 
the company which all were obliged to observe. See note on John ii, 8. 

Bishop Patrick, in his note on this place, suggests that the text means 
that though it was the custom to compel men to drink whether they would 
or not, yet the kirig on this occasion directed that each guest be left to bis 
own discretion, and that none were obliged to drink according to this 
custom. Leaving out the word was, which the translators supplied; ren- 
dering the Hebrew word dath, " custom," instead of "law," as in our ver- 
sion; and slightly changing the punctuation, the Bishop translates: "The 
drinking according to custom, none did compel." Thus no one would incur 
displeasure who violated the ordinary rule of conviviality. 



Esther.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 203 



390.— FEASTS FOR THE WOMEN. 
I, 9. Also Vashti the queen made a feast for the women in 
the royal house which belonged, to king Ahasuerus. 

The women in the East do not have their feasts in the same room with 
the men. This separation of the sexes is an ancient custom which was 
observed at this time at the court of Persia, though Jahn, speaking of the 
custom, says that " Babylon and Persia must, however, be looked upon as 
exceptions, where the ladies were not excluded from the festivals of the 
men, (Dan. v, 2 ;) and if we may believe the testimony of ancient authors, at 
Babylon they were not remarkable for their modesty on such occasions." 
Archaeology, § 146. 

As far as Babylon is concerned the remark is correct, and it serves to 
illustrate the relaxation of manuers which showed itself among the dissolute 
Babylonians. It is not true, however, in reference to Persia, as is plainly 
seen by the indignation of Vashti when her drunken husband sent for her 
to come and display her beauty before the revelers. Her womanly spirit 
was aroused and she refused. See verse 12. This error as to the Persian 
custom probably rests on an oft-quoted story told by Herodotus, who says 
that seven Persian embassadors, being sent to Amyntas, a Grecian prince, 
were entertained by him at a feast, and told him when they began to drink 
that it was customary among their countrymen to introduce their concubines 
and young wives at their entertainments. Dr. Pusey says of this statement, 
" If historical, it was a shameless lie, to attain their end." — Lectures on 
Daniel, p. 461, note. Rawlinson represents the Oriental seclusion of women 
as carried to an excess among the ancient Persians. See Five Ancient 
Monarchies, vol. iii, p. 222. 

391.— CHAMBERLAINS. 

I, 10. The seven chamberlains that served in the presence of 
Ahasuerus the king. 

Sarisim is variously rendered "chamberlains," "officers." and "eunuchs." 
They were emasculated persons who had charge of the harems of Oriental 
monarchs, and who were also employed by them in various offices about the 
court. They often became the confidential advisers of the monarch, and 
were frequently men of great influence, and sometimes had high military 
office. See Jer. xxxix, 3. This was especially the case in Persia, where 
they acquired great political power, and filled positions of great prominence, 
and sometimes engaged in conspiracy against the life of the king, an illustra- 
tion of which may be found in chapter ii, verse 21. 

The Hebrew monarchs had them in their courts. See 1 Sam. viii, 15; 



204 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Esther. 

1 Kings xxii, 9; 2 Kings viii, 6; ix, 32; xxiii, 11; xxv, 19; 1 Chron. 
xxviii, 1 ; Jer. xxix, 2; xxxiv, 19: xxxviii, 7; lii, 25. 

Though it was the barbarous custom of Eastern sovereigns to mutilate 
many of their young prisoners in the manner here indicated, there is no 
evidence that the Hebrew kings ever did this. The eunuchs employed by 
them are supposed to have been imported. It is thought that Daniel and 
his companions were thus maltreated by the king of Babylon in fulfillment of 
the prediction contained in 2 Kings xx, 17, 18 ; Isa. xxxix. 7. 

392.— THE ROYAL HAREM. 

II, 13. Out of the house of the women unto the king's 
house. 

The place appointed as a residence for the wives and concubines of the 
king was separated from the rest of the palace by a court. There were in it 
three sets of apartments : one set for the virgins who had not yet been sent for 
by the king, one for the concubines, and one for the queen and the other 
wives. The first is referred to in verse 8 ; it wa% under the charge of a 
special chamberlain. The second is mentioned in verse 14, and is spoken 
of as under the charge of another chamberlain. The third is mentioned in 
chapter i, 9, and was under the charge of the queen herself: she was not 
watched over by a chamberlain, but had one subject to her orders. See 
Esther iv, 5. 

39,3.— TEBETH. 

U, 16. The tenth month, which is the month Tebeth. 

This corresponded very nearly to our month of January. 

394.— THE PERSIAN QUEEN. 
II, 17. The king loved. Esther above all the women, and she 
obtained grace and favor in his sight more than all the vir- 
gins ; so that he set the royal crown upon her head, and made 
her queen instead of Vashti. 

There was one of the wives of the Persian monarchs who occupied a 
higher position than any of the others, and to her alone the title of " queen" 
belonged. " The chief wife or queen-consort was privileged to wear on her 
head a royal tiara or crown. She was the acknowledged head of the female 
apartments or Gynaeceum, and the concubines recognized her dignity by 
actual prostration. On great occasions, when the king entertained the male 
part of the court, she feasted all the females in her own part of the palace. She 
had a large revenue of her own. assigned her, not so much by the will of her 
husband, as by an established law or custom. Her dress was splendid, and 
she was able to indulge freely that love of ornament of which few Oriental 
women are devoid." — Rawlinsox, Five Ancient Monarchies, vol. iii, p. 218. 

This was the elevated position filled by Vashti, and afterward by Esther. 



Esther.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 205 



395.— ETIQUETTE OF THE PERSIAN COURT. 

IV, 11. Whosoever, whether man or woman, shall come unto 
the king into the inner court, who is not called, there is one 
law of his to put him to death, except such to whom the king 
shall hold out the golden scepter, that he may live. 

The etiquette of the Persian court was very strict. Except the " Seven 
Princes," no one could approach the king unless introduced by a court 
usher. To come into the king's presence without being summoned was a 
capital crime ; and the severity of the Persian punishments may be seen in 
the fact that an act like this was followed by the same punishment as mur- 
der or rebellion. The intruder was instantly put to death by the attendants 
unless the king, by extending his golden scepter, showed his approval of 
the act. It was well understood, therefore, that whoever thus appeared 
before the king deliberately risked life ; and it is an evidence of the influence 
which Esther had gained over Ahasuerus that, when she appeared, the 
scepter' was extended. See chapter v, 2, and viii, 4. 

396.— FEASTING WITH THE KING. 

V, 12. To-morrow am I invited unto her also with the king. 

It was a rare privilege for a subject, however high his station, to be per- 
mitted to banquet with the king. Occasionally, however, this was allowed, 
and Haman had reason to feel highly honored at the invitation he received 
from the queen by permission of the king. It must be understood, how- 
ever, that when subjects were thus admitted to feast with royalty they were 
reminded of their inferior position. "The monarch reclined on a couch with 
golden feet, and sipped the rich wine of Helbon; the guests drank an inferior 
beverage, seated upon the floor." — Five Monarchies, vol. iii, p. 214. On 
some very special occasions the rigidity of this rule was relaxed. The king 
presided openly at a banquet where large numbers of dignitaries were 
assembled, and royal couches and royal wine were provided for them all. 
Such a feast is referred to in chapter i, 3. 

397.— ROYAL HONORS GIVEN TO A SUBJECT. 

VI, 8. Let the royal apparel be brought which the king useth 
to wear, and the horse which the king rideth upon, and 
the crown royal which is set upon his head. 

1. Chardin says that when the grandees visited Solyman III., to congratulate 
him on his coronation, the king made every one of them a present of a 
Calate, or royal vest. " It is an infallible mark of the particular esteem 
which the sovereign has for the person to whom he sends it, and that he has 



206 BTBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Esther. 

free liberty to approach his person." — Travels in Persia, p. "71. See also 
note on 1 Sam. xviii, 4. 

2. Herodotus states that the kings of Persia had horses of remarkable 
beauty and of a peculiar breed which were brought from Armenia. To ride 
upon the king's horse was almost as great an honor as to sit upon his 
throne. 

3. Some commentators think that by "the crown royal" is meant merely 
an ornament which was a part of the head-trappings of the horse ; though 
why the horse's head-dress should deserve such special mention here it is 
not easy to tell. It is more likely that the crown of the king is meaut, and 
if so, it is probable, as some authorities suppose, that the crown was put, 
not on the head of Mordecai, but on the head of the horse. It is said to 
have been a custom among the Persians, as well as some other nations, 
that the crown of the king was sometimes put on some favorite royal steed 
when the animal was led in state. 

398.— SIGN OF ROYAL DISPLEASURE. 
VII, 7. The king arising from the banquet of wine in his wrath 
went into the palace garden : and Haman stood up to make 
request for his life to Esther the queen ; for he saw that there 
was evil determined against him by the king. 

The rising of the king in this way was an evidence to Haman of his con- 
demnation to death; it was the royal method of expressing displeasure and 
vengeance. An instance is cited by Rosenmuller, from Olearius, which illus- 
trates this Persian custom. Schah Sen" once considered himself insulted by 
an unseemly jest which one of his favorites had permitted himself to relate in 
his presence. The king suddenly arose and left the place, and the favorite 
saw that his fate was sealed. He went home in dismay, and in a few hours 
the king sent for his head. — Morgeriland, vol. hi, p. 314. 

399.— THE FACE COVERED. 

VII, 8. As the word went out of the king's mouth, they cov- 
ered Haman's face. 

The precise design of thus covering the face of a condemned criminal is 
not known, though it has been conjectured that it was intended to signify 
that the person condemned was not worthy again to look on the face of the 
kmg. The custom was observed in other nations as well as among the 
Persians. 

400.— SIVAN. 

VIII, 9. In the third month, that is, the month Sivan. 

Sivan corresponded nearly to our mouth of June. 



Esther] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 207 



401.— THE FEAST OF PURIM. 

IX, 26. Wherefore they called, these days Purim after the 
name of Pur. 

Pur is a Persian word signifying a part, and thence denoting a lot. 
With the Hebrew plural termination it becomes purim, "lots." This is the 
name by which the feast is known which is kept to commemorate the 
deliverance of the Jews from the plot of Haman. It is called the Feast of 
Lots because Haman in his superstition resorted to divination for the pur- 
pose of ascertaining when he could most effectually destroy the Jews. See 
Esther iii, 1. Some think that the name was given in irony, as denoting 
the contempt in which the Jews held Haman and his divination. 

There is a tradition that the introduction of this feast among the Jews 
met with some opposition, though it afterward became generally observed. 
The day before the feast is kept as a solemn fast. On the day of the 
feast the people assemble in the synagogue, where the book of Esther is read 
amid clapping of hands and stamping of feet, as demonstrations of contempt 
for Haman and of joy for the deliverance of the Jews. After leaving the 
synagogue there are great feasts at home, which have been sometimes 
carried to such excess that some writers have called the Feast of Purim the 
Bacchanalia of the Jews. 



JOB. 

402.— PASTORAL WEALTH. 
1,3. His substance also was seven thousand sheep, and three 
thousand camels, and five hundred yoke of oxen, and five 
hundred she-asses. 

Among people of pastoral and nomadic habits it is natural to estimate 
wealth, not by houses and lands, but by the number of animals owned. 
Abram was very rich in cattle. G-en. xiii, 2. Lot had flocks and herds. Gen. 
xiii, 5. See also Gen. xxiv, 35. Job's wealth, on the return of his pros- 
perity, was estimated in like manner. See Job xiii, 12. Special mention is 
made of she-asses because they were more highly valued than the males on 
account of their milk, a nourishing drink. To this day the riches of the 
Bedawin are reckoned by the number and quality of their cattle. 

403.— THE VALUE OF LIFE. 
II, 4. Skin for skin, yea, all that a man hath will he give for 
his life. 

Many interpretations have been given of this passage, which was evidently 
a familiar proverb in the early times when Job lived. It probably refers to 



208 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Job. 

some ancient custom of bartering by means of skins of animals slain in the 
chase. The hungry hunter trades with the grain grower, parting, for a 
supply of food, with the skins of the beasts he has slain, and if necessary he 
will exchange all he has in order to obtain bread. As Kitto says of this 
text. " It will then express the necessity of submitting to one great evil to 
avoid incurring a greater, answering to the Turkish proverb, 'We must give 
our beards to save our heads. 1 " — Daily Bible Illustrations, vol. v, p. 83. 

404.— GRAIN AND THORNS. 
V, 5. Whose harvest the hungry eateth up, and taketh it 
even out of the thorns, and the robber swalloweth up their 
substance. 

This may refer either to the thief who takes all the grain, even that which 
is mixed with thorns, or to a custom which Dr. Thomson mentions as illus- 
trating this text. He says, "The farmers, after they have threshed out the 
grain, frequently lay it aside in the chaff in some private place near the floor, 
and cover it up with thorn-bushes to keep it from being carried away or 
eaten by animals. Robbers who found and seized this would literally take 
it from among the thorns." — Tlie Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 537. 

405.— POISONED ARROWS. 
YI, 4. For the arrows of the Almighty are within me, the poi- 
son whereof drinketh up my spirit. 

An allusion is doubtless made here to the practice, common among bar- 
barous nations of all times, of dipping the points of arrows into some poison- 
ous substance for the purpose of insuring the death of the persons who 
might be struck with them. 

406.— SHADOWS. 

VII, 2. As a servant earnestly desireth the shadow, and as a 
hireling looketh for the reward of his work. 

The lengthening shadow indicates the close of day and the termination of 
toil, and is therefore desired by the weary laborer. In India time is meas- 
ured by the length of one's shadow. If a man is asked for the time of day, 
he stands erect in the sunshine, observes where his shadow terminates, and 
then paces the distance, and is able to tell the time with considerable accu- 
racy. A person wishing to leave his work often exclaims, " How long my 
shadow is in coming! " — Roberts, Oriental Customs, p. 261. 

407.— PRIMITIVE MAIL-CARRIERS. 
IX, 25. My days are swifter than a post : they flee away, they 
see no good. 

Swift runners were often employed in ancient times to convey important 
messages. Kings kept a number of such in their service as a part of the 



Job.] BIBLE MANNEES AND CUSTOMS. 209 

royal household. When Hezekiah sent invitations to the solemn passover 
which he designed holding at Jerusalem, it is said that "the posts went with 
the letters from the king and his princes throughout all Israel and Judah." 
2 Chron. xxx, 6. In the time of Jeremiah there seems to have been a regu- 
lar postal seryice established, for he says, in prophesying the destruction of 
Babylon : " One post shall run to meet another, and one messenger to meet 
another, to show the king of Babylon that his city is taken at one end." Jer. 
li, 31. The Persians also made use of swift messengers. The order com- 
manding the murder of all the Jews in the empire was sent by this means. 
See Esth. hi, 13, 15. The order which neutralized the effect of this proc- 
lamation was sent by "posts that rode upon mules and camels." Esth. 
viii, 14. 

"While there may have been no systematic communication of this sort in 
the time of Job, yet it is evident from the text that men fleet of foot were 
employed when occasion required. The patriarch compares the rapid flight 
of his days to a post; literally, a runner, a man hastening with news. This 
was the swiftest mode of communication with which he was familiar, and his 
days went swifter still. 

See further the note on Matt, v, 41. 

408.— SUPPOSED VIRTUES OF SNOW WATER. 
IX, 30. If I wash myself witJn snow water, and. make my 
hands never so clean. 

Snow water was anciently supposed to possess peculiar virtues for 
cleansing the skin. It was thought that the skin was whitened by it, and 
that it contracted the fibers and prevented perspiration. "In the fable of 
Lockman, No. 13, the black mau rubs his body with snow in order to make 
it white. Therefore Mohammed prays, ' Lord, wash me from my sins white 
with water, snow, and ice.' " — Umbreit, Version of the Book of Job. 

409.— ROBBERS. 
XII, 6. The tabernacles of robbers prosper, and they that pro- 
voke God are secure. 

Robbery has from a very early period of history been a common occupa- 
tion of lawless men, and has also often proved a profitable employment, as 
intimated by the text. Whole tribes, and in some instances entire nations, 
adopted it as a means of livelihood. The Sabeans stole Job's oxen and 
asses, and "the Chaldeans made out three bands and fell upon the camels." 
Job i, 15, 17. The Shechemites " set liers in wait" (or Abimelech "in the 
top of the mountains, and they robbed all that came along that way by 
them." Judges ix, 25. The robbery mentioned in the parable of the Good 
Samaritan (Luke x, 30) frequently found its counterpart in facts, and at the 
present day travelers are sometimes robbed by predatory bands. 




210 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Job. 



410.— BOSSES. 
XV, 26. He runneth, upon him, even on his neck, upon the 
thick bosses of his bucklers. 

The boss was the external convex part of the round shield, 
its thickest and strongest portion. There were some shields 
whose shape was wholly convex, the center being an elevated 
point, as may be seen in the engraving, which represents an 
Assyrian convex shield. 

There were also convex ornaments which were placed on 
the outside of shields, adding strength as well as beauty. 
Layard found at Nimroud circular bronze shields, each hav- 
ing an iron handle fastened by six nails. The heads of these 
nails formed bosses on the outside of the shield. 

In the text Eliphaz expresses the uselessness of the attack 
which the wicked man makes on G-od. by representing him as 
running upon the most impenetrable part of the shield. 

411.— FRAIL HOUSES. 
XV, 28. He dwelleth in desolate cities, and in houses which, no 
man inhabiteth, which, are ready to become heaps. 

Many of the rude huts in the East are made of small stones or built of 
mud. The roof is made by covering the beams with brushwood, and this in 
turn with earth. The rain soaks into the earth, and the weight settling on 
brush and beams gradually breaks them down unless there is an industrious 
occupant (see Eccl. x, 18) to keep the roof in proper condition. When the 
roof is broken down the walls easily fall, and the whole house soon becomes 
a heap of ruins. But this is true not merely of such rude mud huts, but of 
large edifices, temples and palaces, built of sun-dried brick, as the ruins of 
Babylon and Nineveh amply testify. 

412.— LIGHT AND DARKNESS AS EMBLEMS. 

XVIII, 5, 6. Yea, the light of the wicked shall be put out, and 
the spark of his fire shall not shine. The light shall be dark in 
his tabernacle, and his candle shall be put out with him. 

To the susceptible mind of the Oriental, light is an object of desire, and 
darkness something to be greatly dreaded. The lamp is usually kept burn- 
ing in the house all night; and its light is used as an emblem of prosperity, 
and the extinguishment of it as an emblem of a great calamity. Thus Job 
speaks of the days of his prosperity when the candle of the Lord shone 
upon his head. Job xxix, 3. David says, "Thou wilt light my candle; the 
Lord my God will enlighten my darkness." Psa. xviii, 28. On the other 
hand, we find Job saying, as expressive of great affliction: "How oft is the 



Job.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 211 

candle of the wicked put out." Job xxi, 17. Solomon says, "Whoso curseth 
his father or his mother, his lamp shall be put out in obscure darkness." 
Prov. xx, 20. " The candle of the wicked shall be put out." Prov. xxiv, 20. 
The Saviour on two occasions refers to this Oriental dread of darkness 
where lie represents the punishment of the wicked under the figure of "outer 
darkness." See Matt, viii, 12; xxii, 13. Both ideas are blended in Prov. 
xiii, 9: "The light of the righteous rejoiceth: but the lamp of the wicked 
shall be put out." 
See also Jer. xxv, 10. 

413— THE NET IN COMBAT. 
XIX, 6. Know now that God hath, overthrown me, and. hath 
compassed me with his net. 

Some commentators find here an illustration of an ancient mode of com- 
bat practiced among the Persians. G-oths, and Romans. Among the Romans 
one of the combatants had a sword and shield, while the other had a trident 
and net. The latter endeavored to throw his net over the head of his adver- 
sary. If he succeeded in this, he immediately drew the net around his neck 
with a noose which was attached to it, pulled him to the ground and dis- 
patched him with the trident. If he failed to throw the net over the head, 
he in turn ran the risk of being destroyed by his adversary while seeking 
his net for another throw. If Job knew of this custom in his day, he repre- 
sents himself in this text as having engaged in a contest with God, and, be- 
ing defeated, he now lies entangled in the net and completely at the mercy 
of his conqueror. 

414.— BOOKS— TABLETS— MONUMENTS. 
XIX, 23, 24. O that my words were now written ! O that they 
were printed in a book ! that they -were graven -with an iron 
pen and lead in the rock forever I See also Jer. xvii, 1. 

Three different substances for the preservation of records are usually sup- 
posed to be referred to here : 

1. Books. These were anciently made of linen or cotton cloth, skins, or 
the leaves of the papyrus. From the last word comes our English word, 
paper. The inner bark of trees was also sometimes used. The Latin word 
for bark being liber, this word at length came to signify a book ; it is still 
found in the English word library. When made of cloth or skins the book 
was made up in the form of a roll. See note on Isa. xxxiv, 4. 

2. Leaden tablets. These are of high antiquity. In 1699 Montfaucou 
bought at Rome a very old book entirely made of lead. It was about four 
inches long and three wide, and had a cover and six leaves or sheets. The 
hinges and nails were also made of lead. The volume contained Egyptian 
gnostic figures unci inscriptions in Greek and Etruscan characters. 



212 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS, [Job. 

In a temple in the Carian city of Cnidus, erected in honor of Hades and 
Persephone, about the fourth century before Christ, the women were in the 
habit of depositing thin sheets of lead on which were written the names of 
persons they hated, together with their misdeeds. They also inscribed on 
the lead tablets imprecations against those who had thus injured them. 
Many of these tablets were discovered in 1858 when excavations were 
made in the ruins of the temple. They are now in the British Museum. 

It is not, however, certain that Job in the text refers to leaden tablets or 
leaves on which inscriptions were made. He may have alluded to the cus- 
tom of first cutting letters in stone and then filling them up with molten 
lead. There are indications that some of the incised letters in Assyrian 
monuments were filled with metal. M. Botta states that the letters on the 
pavement slabs of Khorsabad give evidence of having been filled with cop- 
per. See Layard's Nineveh and its Remains, vol. ii, p. 188. 

3. Stone monuments. The law was originally written on tables of stone 
"with the finger of God." Exod. xxxi, 18. The second set of tables were 
written by Moses by Divine command. Exod. xxxiv, 4, 28. Joshua copied 
the law on the stone altar at Mount Ebal. Josh, viii, 32. This mode of 
recording important truths or events was very common in ancient times. 
Job desires that his sentiments should be thus engraved, that generations to 
come might read the record. 

The stone records of ancieut Oriental nations, which modern discoveries 
have brought to light, are all illustrations of the custom which Job evidently 
had in mind. Many of these bear on Scripture facts and history, confirming 
and supplementing the sacred record. The most remarkable, in some 
respects, of any of these ancient monuments is the famous Moabite stone, 
the discovery of which in the year 1 868 created such intense excitement 
among biblical scholars and antiquarians. This is the very oldest Semitic 
inscription of importance as yet discovered, and is the only one thus far 
found which reaches back to the age of the Jewish monarchy. It gives the 
Moabitish account of the conflict described in the third chapter of the Second 
Book of Kings. 

415.— HOUSES OF CLAY. 
XXIV, 16. In the dark they dig through houses, which they 
had marked for themselves in the daytime. 

This refers to houses that are built of clay. Of these there are several 
varieties. Some have a framework of wicker hurdles thickly daubed with 
mud. In others the walls are made of layers of mud placed one over the 
other, each drying before the next is put on. Others still are made of sun- 
dried bricks. This style of building is very ancient, and is still common in 
many parts of the East. A thief might easily break through a wall of this 



Job.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 213 

kind, and modern thieves are as ready to do it as were the burglars who 
lived in the days of Job. 

Houses like these are referred to by Eliphaz in Job iv, 19, where he 
speaks of " houses of clay, whose foundation is in the dust, which are 
crushed before the moth ; " and also in Ezek. xii, 5, where the prophet is 
commanded, in a figurative way, to dig " through the wall." The Saviour 
also refers to them when he speaks of thieves breaking through to steal, 
(Matt, vi, 19,) and of the house which was broken up by the thief. Matt. 
xxiv, 43. The frailty of the walls of such houses is also probably referred 
to iu Psa. lxii, 3, and Isa. xxx, 13. 

416.— WORMS FEEDING ON THE BODY. 
XXIV, 20. The worm shall feed sweetly on him ; he shall be 
no more remembered. 

It is an Oriental opinion that worms exist in the skin and in all parts of 
the body, and that they are among the principal causes of its destruction. 
Roberts (Oriental Illustrations, p. 271) quotes from an ancient Iirdian 
medical work in which eighteen kinds of worms are enumerated by tt e 
author in as many different parts of the body. In Job xix, 26, the translators 
have supplied the word worms : " Though after my skin worms destroy this 
body." Though the word is not in the original, yet the sentiment is in 
accordance with the text we are now illustrating and with several other 
passages. See Job vii, 5; xvii, 14; xxi, 26; Isa. xiv, 11. In India it is 
common for a sick man to say, " All, my body is but a nest for worms; 
they have paths in all parts of my frame ! " " Ah, these worms are con- 
tinually eating my flesh ! " 

417.— RAIMENT AS WEALTH. 
XXVII, 16. Though he heap up silver as the dust, and prepare 
raiment as the clay. 

The Eastern people have always reckoned collections of raiment among 
their choice treasures, and estimate them in the accounts of their wealth 
along with gold and silver. This is seen in the text, and is also to be found 
in the injunction of the Saviour in Matt, vi, 19, where, in speaking of the 
uncertain character of worldly wealth, he refers to the ravages of the moth 
upon the treasures of raiment. So Paul in his address at Miletus to the 
elders of Ephesus, says, "I have coveted no man's silver, or gold, or 
apparel." Acts xx, 33. He also refers to the value of garments in 1 Tim. 
ii, 9, where he speaks of " costly array." James likewise says in his epistle, 
chapter v, 2, " Your riches are corrupted and your garments are moth-eaten." 

See also the note on G-en. xlv, 22. 



214 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Job. 



418.— STONE OIL-PRESSES. 
XXIX, 6. The rock poured, me out rivers of oil. 

Some think the reference here is to the fact that the olive-tree sometimes 
grows in very rocky soil ; but allusion is more probably made to stone oil- 




-AnCIENT 0IL-PEE8SES. 

presses, from which the oil flowed like a river. See also Ezek. xxxii, 14. 
Moses speaks of oil being sucked "out of the flinty rock." Deut. xxxii, 13. 



419.— EATING ALONE. 
XXXI, 17. Or have eaten my morsel myself alone, and the fa- 
therless hath not eaten thereof. 

It is a part of Oriental etiquette to invite others to partake of food. See 
note on Gen. xviii, 2, 3. Dr. Shaw says, referring to his travels in Arabia : 
" No sooner was our food prepared, whether it was potted flesh boiled with 
rice, a lentil soup, or unleavened cakes served up with oil or honey, than 
one of the Arabs, (not to eat his morsel alone,) after having placed himself on 
the highest spot of ground in the neighborhood, calls out thrice, with a loud 
voice, to all his brethren, The sons of the faithful, to come and partake of it; 
though none of them were in view, or perhaps within a hundred miles of us. 
This custom, however, they maintain to be a token at least of their great 
benevolence, as indeed it would have been of their hospitality, provided they 
could have had an opportunity to show it." — Travels, Preface, p. xii. 

420— IMPRESSIONS OF SEALS. 
XXXVIII, 14. It is turned as clay to the seal. 

The bricks of Egypt, Babylonia, and Assyria bear marks which have 
evidently been made with a seal. Egyptian wine jars and mummy pits 
were sometimes sealed with clay. There have been found in Assyria 




Job.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 215 

public documents made of clay, and having the letters stamped in them, and 
the marks of official sealing. In the East, doors of granaries or of treasure 
rooms are to this day sometimes sealed with 
clay, so that it is impossible to enter without 
first breaking the seal. The sepulcher of Christ 
was probably sealed in this way. See note on 
Matt, xxvii, 66. Clay is used in preference to 
wax because the former hardens with the heat, 
while the latter melts. The engraving repre- 
sents a lump of clay from Assyria, having sev- 
eral impressions of seals upon it. 

For description of seals, see note on 1 Kings 

81. — Impressions of Seals. 
xxi, 8. 

421.— CORDS AND RINGS. 

XLL, 2. Canst thou, put a hook into his nose ? or bore his jaw 

through with a thorn? 

1. Agmon, "hook," is more correctly a rush-cord or rope made of reeds, 
(Gesenius ;) and the question of the text suggests the wonderful strength of 
the leviathan by the impossibility of putting a rope around his nose, thus 
binding his jaws. 

2. Choach, " thorn," is really a ring ; and the text probably refers to a 
custom, very ancient and still practiced, of inserting a strong iron ring into 
the jaw of a fish as soon as caught. A cord is fastened to the ring and the 
fish is let down into the water, where it remains until the fisherman has an 
opportunity of selling it. 

422.— FISH-SPEARS. 
XLI, 7. Canst thou fill his skin with barbed, irons ? or his head, 
with fish-spears ? 

There is an allusion here to an instrument resembling the bideut or two- 
tongued fish-spear in use by the Egyptians, and frequently depicted on the 
monuments. This spear was a slender rod some ten or twelve feet long, 
doubly feathered at the end, like a modern arrow. It had two sharp 
points about two feet in length, and on these the fish were impaled. The 
fisherman pushed along the Nile in a flat-bottomed boat among the papyrus 
reeds and lotus plants, and on seeing his finny prey drove the weapon with 
his right hand, steadying it through a curve in his left. 

423.— ADVERSITY A PRISON 
XLII, 10. The Lord turned the captivity of Job, when he prayed 
for his friends : also the Lord gave Job twice as much as he 
had before. 

This, in the figurative language of the East, means that the Lord restored 
Job to his former prosperity. Roberts says, " A man formerly in great pros- 



216 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Job. 



perity speaks of his present state as if he were in prison. ' I am now a 
captive. Yes, I am a slave.' If he be again providentially elevated, it is 
observed, ' His captivity is changed.' "—Oriental Illustrations, p. 302. David 
says, "Bring my soul out of prison, that I may praise thy name." Psa. 
cxlii, 7. 

424.— PRESENTS TO THE AFFLICTED. 

XLII, 11. Then came there unto him all his brethren, and all 
his sisters, and. all they that had. been of his acquaintance be- 
fore, and did eat bread with him in his house. . . . Every- 
man also gave him a piece of money, and every one an ear- 
ring of gold. 

1. It is said to be still a custom in some parts of the East for friends and 
relatives to visit, at some previously appointed time, a man in trouble, 
bringing with them presents to supply bis wants, and to make up for what- 
ever losses he may have sustained by his calamity. After partaking of a 
feast, prepared by the host, the guests leave their gifts, and express their 
desire for his future prosperity. 

2. On the meaning of "a piece of money," (kesitah.) see note on Gen. 
xxxiii, 19. 

425.— POETIC NAMES. 

XLII, 14. He called the name of the first, Jemima ; and the 
name of the second, Kezia ; and the name of the third, 
Keren- happueh. 

Rosenmiiller has the following note on this verse : " A Jewish writer, 
Solomon Jarchi, correctly remarks that the names of the daughters of Job 
indicate their beauty, as it is said in the fifteenth verse: 'And in all the 
land were no women found so fair as the daughters of Job.' The first name, 
Jemima, means resembling a clear day, (with the brilliancy of its beauty) — 
fair as the day. So, according to Hesychius, Hdmera, that is, day, was a 
surname of Diana. The second name, Kezia, means Cassia, one of the 
most valuable spices of antiquity. The third name, Keren-happuch, means 
Horn of the Eye-paint, that is, a vessel made of horn, wherein the Oriental 
women kept the paint which they used for their eyes. Thomas Roe, in his 
Travels, remarks that the Persians are accustomed to give their women 
names which mean spices, fragrant ointments, pearls or precious stones, or 
something otherwise beautiful and delightful." — Morgenland, vol. iii, p. 375. 

It is proper to say, however, that the etymology above given is disputed 
by some authorities. Gesenius derives Jemima from an Arabic word sig- 
nifying dove. Dr. Alexander, editor of Koto's Cyclopedia, defines Keren- 
happuch, Horn of adornment, or Horn of beauty. These interpretations, as 
much as the others given, represent the names as names of beauty. 



Psalms.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



217 



PSALMS. 

426.— IRRIGATION OF GARDENS, 
i, 3. He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water, 
that bringeth forth his fruit in his season. 

Several commentators call attention to the fact that palge-mayim, here 
rendered " rivers of water," literally means divisions of waters ; and refer- 
ence is supposed to be made to a very favorite mode of irrigation in some 
Eastern countries. Canals are dug in every direction, and through these the 




S2.— A Watered Garden. 

water is carried, to the great improvement of vegetatiou. Egypt was once 
covered with these canals, and in this way the waters of the Nile were 
carried to every part of the valley through which the river ran. Some 
Eastern gardens are so arranged that water is conveyed around every plot, 
and even to every tree. Allusion is probably made to this custom in Ezek. 
xxxi, 3, 4, where "the Assyrian" is spoken of as "a cedar." " The waters 
made him great, the deep set him up on high with her rivers running 
around about his plants, and sent out her little rivers unto all the trees of 
the field." We do not know that this ancient custom existed so earlv as 

14 



218 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. 

the time of Job, but chapter xxxviii, 25, of the Book of Job seems to indi- 
cate it : " "Who hath divided a watercourse for the overflowing of waters," 
etc. Solomon says, " The king's heart is in the hand of the Lord, as the 
rivers of water: he turneth it whithersoever he will." Prov. xxi, 1. In 
enumerating the many works of his reign the same king says, " I made me 
gardens and orchards, and I planted trees in them of all kind of fruits. I 
made me pools of water, to water therewith the wood that bringeth forth 
trees." Eccles. ii, 5. 6. 

See note on Deut. xi, 10. See also Isa. i, 30; lviii, 11; Jer. xvii, 8; 
xxxi, 12. 

Several methods are adopted for conveying the water from a river to the 
canals which run through the gardens. Sometimes large wheels are so set 
that while the bottom enters the water, the top is a little above the level 
of the bank. The circumference of every wheel has earthen jugs fastened 
to it. The turning of the wheel, either by the current or by oxen, plunges 
the jugs under the water and fills them ; when the jugs rise to the top of 
the bank they empty themselves into a channel prepared for the pur- 
pose, and the water is thus conveyed to the garden. Sometimes the water 
is raised from the river to the canal on the bank by means of a shadoof, or 
well-sweep, very similar to the old-fashioned machine for drawing water 
from wells in our own country — a horizontal pole, hung on a perpendicular 
one, having a bucket at one end and a balance of stones at the other. 

427.— KISSING AN ACT OF HOMAGE. 
II, 12. Kiss the Son, lest he be angry and ye perish from the 
way ; when his wrath is kindled but a little. 

"When Samuel anointed Saul he kissed the newly make king. This act of 
homage was a recognition of his royalty. 1 Sam. x, 1. It is a custom still 
observed in India and Arabia. In this way the Psalmist desires all men to 
recognize the royalty of the Son. Kissing was an act of worship among 
idolaters. See 1 Kings xix, IS; Job xxxi. 27; Hosea xiii, 2. Instead of 
worshiping idols, God would have us worship his son Jesus Christ. 

An interesting incident is given in Irby and Mangle's Travels showing 
how kissing was used as a token of reconciliation. The circumstance 
recorded occurred near Petra. 

"While we were deliberating on this subject, we saw a great cavalcade 
entering our camp from the southward. There were many mounted Arabs 
with lances, and we observed that there were some amongst the horsemen 
who wore richer turbans, and of more gaudy colors, than is usual amongst 
Bedouins or peasants. As the procession advanced, several of Abou 
Raschid's Arabs went out and led the horses of the chiefs by the bridles 
nto the camp. The whole procession alighted at the tent of our chief, and 



Psalms.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 219 

kissed his turban ; this was the signal of pacification. Peace was immedi- 
ately proclaimed throughout the camp, and notice was given that men bear- 
ing arms, who had come from a distance, many of whom had joined us that 
very morning, were to return to their respective homes." — Travels in Egypt, 
etc., p. 122. 

428.— WAITING FOR BOOTY. 
X, 8. He sitteth in the lurking places of the villages: in the 
secret places doth he murder the innocent. 

This is an accurate description of the habit of the Bedawin of the present 
day. They watch for booty in villages, or "in the wilderness," (see Jer. 
hi, 2,) anywhere where they can be hidden from view and where they may 
hope to find an unwary passer-by. They do not hesitate to add murder to 
robbery if, in their opinion, necessity demands it. 

See also Psa. lvi, 6; Pro v. i, 11 ; Jer. v, 26. 

429.— ANOINTING GUESTS. 
XXIII, 5. Thou, anointest my head with oil ; my cup runneth 
over. 

Anointing was an ancient custom practiced by the Egyptians, and after- 
ward by the Greeks and Romans and other nations. Olive oil was used, 
(see note on Psa. xcii, 10,) either pure or mixed with fragrant and costly 
spices, often brought from a long distance. See note on Matt, xxvi, 1. The 
practice was in use, not only as a part of the ceremony in connection with 
the coronation of kings, (see note on 2 Kings xi, 12.) and at the installation 
of the High Priest, (Psa. cxxxiii, 2,) but as an act of courtesy and hospitality 
toward a guest. Thus, the Lord accuses Simon of a want of hospitality in 
neglecting to anoint the head of him whom he had invited to eat with him. 
Luke vii, 46. There are pictures on the Egyp- 
tian monuments representing guests having 
their heads anointed. Oil was used for other 
parts of the body as well as for the head, and 
at home as well as when visiting. The bibli- 
cal references to the custom are numerous. 
See Deut. xxviii, 40 ; Ruth iii, 3 ; Psa. xcii, 10 ; 
civ, 15; Eccl. ix, 8; Micah vi, 15; Matt, 
vi, 11. The neglect of anointing was con- 
sidered a sign of mourning. See 2 Sam. xiv, 2 ; 
Dan. x, 3. An anointed face, on the other 83.— Anointing a Guest. 

hand, was a sign of joy ; hence we read of being anointed with the " oil 
of gladness." Psa. xlv, 7 ; Heb. i, 9. 
* Tavernier states that he found the Arabs always ready to accept a present 




220 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. 

of olive oil. As soon as one received it he lifted his turban and anointed 
his head, his face, and his beard, at the same time lifting his eyes to heaven 
and saying, " God be thanked ! " 

Captain Wilson, an Oriental traveler, speaking of the custom alluded to in 
this passage, says: "I once had this ceremony performed on myself in the 
house of a great and rich Indian, in the presence of a large company. The 
gentleman of the house poured upon my hands and arms a delightful odor- 
iferous perfume, put a golden cup into my hands, and poured wine into it 
until it ran over; assuring me, at the same time, that it was a great pleasure 
to him to receive me, and that I should find a rich, supply in his house." 
— Burder, Oriental Customs, No. 539. 

The Psalmist in the text represents himself as an honored guest of Jehovah, 
who prepares a table for him, hospitably anoints him, and puts into his 
hands a full cup. 

430.— CATARACTA. 
XXIV, 7. Lift up your heads, O ye gates ; and be ye lifted up, 
ye everlasting doors. 

Allusion is thought to be made here to the custom of hanging gates so 
that, instead of opening in the ordinary way, they rise and fall as they open 
and shut. A gate of this description was called cataracta, because of the force 
and noise with which it fell. It was used in the fortification of towns, and 
corresponded to the portcullis of modern times ; and is supposed to have 
been known in the time of David. See Smith's Dictionary of Greek and 
Roman Antiquities, S. V. Cataracta. 

431.— SYMBOLICAL HAND-WASHING. 
XXVI, 6. I will wash, mine hands in innoeeney: so will I 
compass thine altar, O Lord. 

There were several occasions on which the Jews were accustomed to 
wash their hands in connection with religious rites. The Psalmist may have 
had one or all of these in mind when he uttered the text. See also Psa. 
lxxiii, 13. 

1. There was the washing required of the priests in the service of the 
tabernacle and temple. The brazen laver was made for this purpose. See 
Exod. xl, 30-32. It is said to have been customary for the priests, when 
they had bound the sacrifice to the horns of the altar to march around it, 
after they had washed their hands. Thus David says. " So will I compass 
thine altar, Lord." 

2. The Jews were also accustomed to wash their hands before engaging 
in prayer. Paul is thought to refer to this in the expression i: holy hands" 
in 1 Tim. ii, 8. 



Psalms] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 221 

3. There were certain ceremonies directed to be observed in cases of mur- 
der where the murderer was unknown. The elders of the city nearest to 
which the body of the murdered man was found were directed to strike off 
a heifer's head, and then it is commanded that they " shall wash their 
hands over the heifer that is beheaded in the valley: and they shall answer 
and say, Our hands have not shed this blood, neither have our eyes seen it." 
Deut. xxi, 6, 7. This was considered a most solemn asseveration on their 
part of their innocence in the matter. Pilate, though a Gentile, had prob- 
ably lived long enough among the Jews to understand this custom, and is, 
therefore, supposed to refer to it when, on the demand of the people that 
Barabbas be freed and Jesus crucified, " he took water, and washed his 
hands before the multitude, saying, I am innocent of the blood of this just 
person : see ye to it." Matt, xxvii, 24. The custom is said to have been 
Gentile as well as Jewish ; but this is denied. See Bloomfield, Greek Tes- 
tament ; Note on Matt, xxvii, 24. 

Since David desires in this text to symbolize inward purity by outward 
washing, any one of these customs may serve for illustration. 

432.— THE PSALTERY. 
XXXIII, 2. Sing unto him with, the psaltery, and an instru- 
ment of ten strings. 

These two instruments, the " psaltery " and " the instrument of ten 
strings," (see also Psa, xcii, 3; cxliv, 9,) are supposed to have been the same, 
the one term being used to explain the other. 
The shape of the nebel, or psaltery, is un- 
known. Some suppose it to have been like 
an inverted Delta, v- Others, from the 
name, imagine that it was shaped like a 
leathern bottle", the word nebel having that 
signification. A skin bottle inverted and 
an inverted Delta would in general shape 
be similar, so that both ideas may be cor- 
rect. Others think that it was shaped some- 84.— Assyrian Triangular Lyre. 
what like a guitar, and that it resembled 
that instrument in its general style. 

Josephus says. " The psaltery had twelve musical notes, and was played 
upon by the fingers." — Antiquities, Book vii, chapter 12, § 3. These twelve 
"notes" are supposed to have been represented by twelve strings, whereas 
the texts above cited speak of but ten. It may be that the number differed 
in different varieties of the instrument. If we suppose these varieties to 
have been designated by the number of their strings, we may find the 
reason for the explanatory clause of the Psalmist, the kind of psaltery to 




222 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Psalms. 



which he specially refers being the one known as " the ten -stringed." The 
strings, whatever their number, were stretched over a wooden frame. 2 Sam. 
vi, 5 ; 1 Kings x, 12. 

When the nebel was invented and 
when it came into use among the 
Hebrews is unknown. It is first men- 
tioned in connection with the inaugu- 
ration of King Saul. When the com- 
pany of young prophets met him, 
shortly after Samuel had anointed him, 
one of the instruments on which they 
played was the nebel. 1 Sam. x, 5. It 
was used in Divine worship. See 
2 Sam. vi, 5 ; 1 Chron. xiii, 8 : 
xv, 16; xvi, 5; xxv, 1; A.mos v, 23 
It was also used on festive occasions 
See Isa. v, 12; xiv, 11; Amos vi, 5 
(In these last passages and in Amos 
v, 23, nebel is rendered viol in our En 
glish version.) From 1 Chron. xiii, 8 
xv, 16, and Amos v, 23, it appears 
that the nebel was used to accompany 
-Assyrian Ltee with Tex Strings, the voice. 
(Khoesabad.) 

433.- POSTURE OF THE FACE IN PRAYER. 
XXXV, 13. I humbled my soul with fasting, and. my prayer 
returned into mine own bosom. 

Reference is thought to be made here to the custom among Orientals of 
praying with the head inclined forward until the face is almost hidden in 
the bosom of the garment. 




434.— THE SERVANT'S EARS. 

XL, 6. Mine ears hast thou opened. 

The Psalmist uses this expression to denote the fact that he is a servant 
of God, ready to do his will, as he further declares in the eighth verse. He 
seems to have in his mind the ceremony by which a Hebrew servant, if 
unwilling to leave his master, might be bound to him for life. "Then his 
master shall bring him unto the judges; he shall also bring him to the door, 
or unto the door post ; and his master shall bore his ear through with an 
awl; and he shall serve him for ever." Exod. xxi, 6. See also Dent. 
xv, 16, 17. This custom was observed, not only by the Jews, but also by 
niany other ancient nations. 



Psalms.J BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



435.— ABUSE OF HOSPITALITY. 
XLI, 9. Yea, mine own familiar friend, in whom I trusted, 
which did eat of my bread, hath lifted up his heel against 
me. 

It is considered an act of great baseness among Eastern nations for any 
one to do an evil deed against those who have shared his hospitality. This 
feeling is very ancient, and is often alluded to by ancient authors. The 
Saviour refers to it when he mentions the baseness of Judas, and cites this 
very passage from the Psalmist. John xiii, 18. See also Obadiah 7. Sim- 
ilar to this notion of the sacredness of hospitality, though, more binding in its 
nature, was " the covenant of salt." See note on Lev. ii, 13. 

436.— PERFUMED GARMENTS. 
XLV, 8. All thy garments smell of myrrh, and aloes, and 
cassia. 

In many parts of the East the people are excessively fond of perfuming 
their garments, sometimes making the fragrance so strong that Europeans 
can scarcely endure it. They sprinkle their clothing with sweet scented 
oils extracted from spices or sandal wood, and with a great variety of 
strongly perfumed waters. They fumigate them with powerful incense or 
by burning sceuted woods. They make use of camphor, civet wood, sandal 
wood, aloes, and even sometimes sew chips of perfumed wood into the 
garments. Reference is made to this custom in Sol. Song iv, 11: "The 
smell of thy garments is like the smell of Lebanon; " and possibly in Hosea 
xiv, 6. Most commentators suppose an allusion to this custom to be made 
also in G-en. xxvii, 27, where Isaac kissed Jacob, and it is said, "he smelled 
the smell of his raiment, and blessed him and said, See, the smell of my son 
is as the smell of a field which the Lord hath blessed." This, however, is 
disputed by some. Kurtz refers to Tuch's view of the passage, and agrees 
with his interpretation. "We must, therefore, agree with Tuch, that an 
aromatic smell of the herbs, flowers, and other produce of the field, must 
have been felt off the garments of Esau, who was ' a man of the field ; ' a 
supposition this which involves no difficulty, considering that the country 
was so rich in aromatic and smelling herbs." — History of the Old Covenant, 
vol. i, p. 298. 

437.— USE OF HYSSOP. 
LI, 7. Purge me with hyssop and I shall be clean. 

Hyssop was appointed to be used in ceremonial purification. It was used 
in connection with the passover, (Exod. xii, 22,) the cleansing of lepers, 
(Lev. xiv, 4, 6. 49, 51, 52,) and the sacrifice of the red heifer. Num. xix, 



224 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms, 

6, 18. See also Heb. ix, 19. Hyssop was anciently considered a means of 
actual bodily purification, and was even taken internally for that purpose. 

438.— BOTTLED TEARS. 

LVI, 8. Thou tellest my wanderings : put thou my tears into 
thy bottle : are they not in thy book ? 

Reference is usually thought to be made here to the lachrymatories or 
tear-bottles which have been found in ancient tombs, and which are sup- 
posed to have b^en used for the purpose of receiving the tears of mourning 
relatives and friends at the time of burial. These tear- bottles are made of 
various materials, such as glass and earthenware, and are of different shapes. 
The most of them are broad at the bottom, with long slender necks and fun- 
nel-shaped mouths. Morier says that in Persia, "in some of their mournful 
assemblies, it is the custom for a priest to go about to each person, at the 
height of his grief, with a piece of cotton in his hand, with which he care- 
fully collects the falling tears, and which he then squeezes into a bottle, 
preserving ihem with the greatest caution." " Some Persians believe that, 
in the agony of death, when all medicines have failed, a drop of tears so 
collected put into the mouth of a dying man has been known to revive him ; 
and it is for such use that they are collected." — Second Journey through 
Persia, p. 179. 

Some commentators, however, deny that there is any reference in this text 
to the ancient lachrymatories, or that there is any evidence of their use 
among the Hebrews. Such affirm that the allusion here is to the custom of 
putting into bags, or small leathern bottles, articles of value for safe keeping. 
See note on Luke xii, 33. The idea would theu be, "Treasure up these tears 
as something of great value/' 

439.— SERPENT CHARMING. 

LVIII, 4, 5. They are like the deaf adder that stoppeth her ear ; 
which will not hearken to the voice of charmers, charming 
never so wisely. 

Serpent charming has from remote times been practiced among Oriental 
nations. While there is doubtless imposture often associated with the exhi- 
bitions of serpent charmers, yet there are many carefully observing travelers 
who give it as their opinion, from their own observation, that there are men 
who, in some way, can detect the- presence of serpents in houses and old 
walls, and can draw them out and keep them from doing mischief by the 
power of shrill musical notes. Since none of the serpent tribe have any ex- 
ternal ear, and consequently can only hear very sharp sounds, it is hardly 
necessary to explain the deafness of the adder as willful, occasioned, as some 



Psalms.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



old travelers have gravely asserted, by putting one ear to the dust and 
stopping the other with its tail. 

Some travelers give it as their opinion that all the serpents exhibited 
by the charmers have 
previously had their 
fangs extracted, while 
others assert that 
some of the serpents 
thus sported with 
have afterward given 
unmistakable evi- 
dence of still possess- 
ing the death- dealing 
power. Forbes gives 
a curious illustration 
of this. He once 
painted the picture of 
a cobra de capello, 
which a Hindoo snake 
charmer kept dancing 
on the table for a 
whole hour, while the 
artist was at his work. 
During this time he 
•' frequently handled 

it to observe the beauty of the spots, and especially the speetacL-s on the 
hood, not doubting but that its venomous fangs had been previously ex- 
tracted." The next morning his servant informed him, very much to his 
iistonishment, that " while purchasing some fruit in the bazar he had 
observed the man who had been" with me on the preceding evening enter- 
taining the country people with his dancing snakes. They, according to their 
usual custom, sat on the ground around him, when, either from the music 
stopping too suddenly, or from some other cause irritating the vicious rep- 
tile which I had so often handled, it darted at the throat of a young woman, 
and inflicted a wound of which she died iu about half an hour.'' — Oriental 
Memoirs, vol. i, p. 44. % 

Besides the text, reference is made to serpent charming in several other 
passages. Solomon refers to it in Eccl. x, 11 : " Surely the serpent will bite 
without enchantment; and a babbler is no better." In the prophecy of 
Jeremiah, there is allusion made to the same custom: "For, behold, I 
will send serpents, cockatrices, among you, which will not be charmed, and 
thev shall bite you, saith the Lord." Jer. viii. IT. 




•KIU'KNT ( IIAHMKI 



226 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. 



440.— BROKEN TEETH. 
LVIII, 6. Break their teeth, O God, in their mouth : break, out 
the great teeth of the young lions, O Lord. 

This is thought by some to be a continuation of the figure in the preced- 
ing verse, and to allude to the custom of snake charmers, who, it is said, 
often break out the teeth of the serpents they wish to tame, and remove the 
poisonous gland; though this is not always done, as the preceding note 
shows. 

This interpretation, however, supposes a "mixed figure" in the text: a 
sudden transition from the serpent's teeth to the teeth of young lions. 
Other interpreters therefore suppose that the reference to serpent charm- 
ing closes with the fifth verse, and that in the sixth verse an allusion is made 
to an ancient custom of heathen kings, who were in the habit of knocking 
out the teeth of their prisoners, or of those who had offended them. 

441.— THORNS FOR FUEL. 
LVIII, 9. Before your pots can feel the thorns, he shall take 
them away as with a whirlwind. 

There is a great variety of thorny shrubs and plants abounding in Pales- 
tine. These the people gladly gather and use for fuel. They make a quick, 
hot fire, which kindles easily and soon expires. The idea conveyed in the 
text is that of swift destruction. The wicked are to be destroyed quicker 
than the heat from a fire of thorns could reach the cooking vessels. 

A similar figure is used in the prophecy of Isaiah : " And the people shall 
be as the burnings of lime: as thorns cut up shall they be burned in the 
fire." Isa. xxxiii, 12. It has been supposed from this text that thorns may 
have been used in lime-kilns. 

Allusion to the use of thorns for fuel is also made in 2 Sam. xxiii, 6, 7 ; 
Psa. cxviii, 12; Eccl. vii, 6; Isa. ix, 18; x, 17; Nahum i, 10. 

See note on 1 Kings xvii, 10, and also on Matt, vi, 30. 

442.— LEATHER TABLES. 

LXIX, 22. Let their table become a snare before them : and 
that which should have been for their welfare, let it become a 
trap. 

The table of the modern Arabs is usually nothing but a piece of skin or 
leather, a mat, or a linen cloth spread upon the ground. The ancient He- 
brews are supposed to have used a table of this sort, and this is thought to 
be referred to in the text. A table thus spread on the ground might easily 
become a trap by which the feet of the unwary would be entangled so that 
they should fall. For a description of the " snare " and "trap " referred to 
here, see note on Psa. xci, 3. 



Psalms.J BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 227 



443.— UNBURIED BODIES. 

LXXIX, 2. The dead, bodies of thy servants have they given 
to be meat unto the fowls of the heaven, the flesh of thy 
saints unto the beasts of the earth. 

1. To be deprived of burial was considered by the Jews one of the great- 
est dishonors that could be inflicted on a human being. In this they but 
shared the common feeling of civilized man. We find a number of scrip- 
tural references to this sentiment. The Psalmist, lamenting the desolations 
he beheld, says, " Our bones are scattered at the grave's mouth, as when one 
cutteth and cleaveth wood upon the earth." Psa. cxli, 7. Solomon speaks 
of it as a great disgrace that a mau "have no burial." Eccl. vi, 3. The Lord 
said of Jehoiakim, "his dead body shall be cast out in the day to the heat, 
and in the night to the frost." Jer. xxxvi, 30. In the text the bodies are 
represented not only as unburied, but as further dishonored by being de- 
voured by birds and beasts. This was one of the curses pronounced by 
Moses for disobedience to the Divine law. Deut. xxviii, 26. It was a threat 
mutually exchanged between David and Goliath. 1 Sam. xvii, 44-46. The 
prophet Jeremiah has several references to this dishonorable treatment of 
the bodies of the dead. See Jer. vii, 33 ; xvi, 4 ; xix, 7 ; xxxiv, 20. 

2. In connection with this subject it may not be amiss to state that, on the 
other hand, the ancient Magi exposed the bodies of their dead, to be eaten 
by birds, as a matter of religious principle ; their theory being that any 
other mode of disposing of a corpse would pollute at least one of the four 
so-called elements : earth, air, fire, and water. If living beings should de- 
vour the dead, this pollution would be prevented. At the present day the 
Guebres, or Fire-worshipers, the descendants of the ancient Persians, follow 
the same practice, and even have apparatus prepared for the purpose. 
" Round towers of considerable height, without either door or window, are 
constructed by the Guebres, having at the top a number of iron bars, which 
slope inwards. The towers are mounted by means of ladders, and the bodies 
are placed crossways upon the bars. The vultures and crows wdiich hover 
about the towers soon strip the flesh from the bones, and these latter then 
fall through to the bottom. The Zendavesta contains particular directions 
for the construction of such towers, which are called dakhmas, or ' towers 
of silence. ' " — Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, vol. ii, p. 350, note 2. 

444.— THE "PIT." 

LXXXVIII, 4. I am counted with them that go down into the 
pit. 

There are several Hebrew words which are rendered in our version by the 
word " pit." The ordinary method of burial being in a grave dug in the earth, 



228 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



or hewn out of the rock, the phrase "go down into the pit" became sy- 
nonymous with death and the grave. Solomon represents those who are try- 
ing to entice the innocent youth into ways of wickedness as saying, " Let us 
swallow them up alive as the grave; and whole, as those that go down into 
the pit." Prov. i, 12. Hezekiah, in his song of thanksgiving for the recovery 
of his health, says, " For the grave cannot praise thee, death cannot celebrate 
thee; they that go down into the pit cannot hope for thy truth." Isa. 
xxxviii, 18. In these two passages the parallel members of the sentence 
explain each other. The phrase referred to is of frequent occurrence in Scrip- 
ture. See, for example, Job xvii, 16; xxxiii, 24; Psa. xxviii, 1; xxx, 3; 
cxliii, 7; Ezek. xxvi, 20; xxviii, 8; xxxi, 14; xxxii, 18. 

445.— BIRD-SNARES. 
XCI, 3. Surely he shall deliver thee from the snare of the 

fowler. 

Several different words are used in the Hebrew to denote various snares 
which were employed in fowling. The word pack, which is used in the text, 
denoted a spring, or trap-net, (i in two parts, which, when set, were spread out 
upon the ground, and slightly fastened with a stick, (trap-stick:) so that as 
soon as a bird or beast touched the stick, the parts flew up and inclosed the 
bird in the net, or caught the foot of the animal. Job xviii, 9." — Robixson's 
Gesenius. The word mokesh is also used to denote a snare of the same sort; 




Ancient Egyptian Snakes. 



though it is also sometimes used to signify a circle of nets for capturing 
beast?. See note on 2 Sam. xxii, 6. 

Snares which were spread on the ground and caught the bird by the feet, 
or, loosing a spring, encircled it with a net, are often referred to by biblical 
writers as illustrative of the dangers which beset men. See Job xviii, 8-10, 
where several varieties seem to be named. The same is true of Psa. cxl, 5. 
See also Psa. cxxiv, 7 ; cxli, 9 ; cxlii, 3 ; Prov. vii, 23 ; xxii, 5 ; Hosea ix, 8 ; 
Amos iii, 5. 

For another mode of catching birds, see note on Hosea vii, 12, 



Psalms] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 229 

446.— GREEN OIL. 

XCII, 10. I shall- be anointed with fresh oil. 

Literally, green oil Some interpret this to mean oil newly made ; others 
an oil made from green or unripe olives, like the beaten oil of the sanctuary. 
See note on Exod. xxvii, 20. Roberts suggests that it means "cold drawn 
oil," or that which is pressed from the nut without the process of boiling. 
He says : " The Orientals prefer this kind to all others for anointing them- 
selves ; it is considered the most precious, the most pure and efficacious. 
Nearly all their medicinal oils are thus extracted, and because they cannot 
gain so much by this method as by the boiling process oils so drawn are 
very dear. Hence their name for the article thus prepared is also patche, 
that is, 'green oil' " — Oriental Illustrations, p. 339. 

447.— TRUMPETS. 
XCVIII, 6. With trumpets and sound of cornet make a joy- 
ful noise before the Lord, the King. 

1. Chatsotserah, "trumpet," was a long, straight, and slender wind instru- 
ment, such as Moses was commanded to furnish for the service of the Israel- 
ites. Num. x, 2. Josephus gives this description of it: "In length it was 
little less than a cubit. It was composed of a narrow tube, somewhat 
thicker than a flute, but with so much breadth as was sufficient for 
admission of the breath of a man's mouth ; it ended in the form of a 
bell, like common trumpets." — Antiquities, book hi, chap. 12, § 6. 

The chatsotserah was used for notifying the people of the different feasts, 
for signaling the change of camp, and for sounding alarms in time of war. 
See Num. x. 1-10 ; Bosea v, 8. It was at first used in sacrificial rites only 
on special occasions, but in the time of David and Solomon its use for such 
purposes was very much extended. 

2. It is impossible to give an accurate description of the shophar, here and 
in other passages rendered " cornet," but often translated "trumpet." Our 
translators render it " trumpet," except when, as in the text, they are com- 
pelled to make a distinct on between it and chatsotserah, which they invari- 
ably render "trumpet." See 1 Chron. xv. 28; 2 Chron. xv. 14; Hosea v, 8. 
It is translated "trumpet" in Exod. xix, 16; Lev. xxv, 9; Job xxxix, 25; 
Joel ii, 1 ; Amos ii, 2. 

Authorities differ as to its shape, some supposing it to have been straight, 
while others contend that it was more or less bent like a horn. The latter 
opinion would seem the more probable from the fact that the "horn," (keren,) 
in Josh, vi, 5, is elsewhere throughout that chapter spoken of as a shophar, 
or "trumpet." From its name, which means "bright," or "clear," the 
shophar is thought to have had a clear, shrill sound. It was used for an- 
nouncing the beginning of the year of jubilee, and for other ceremonial pur- 



230 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



LPsalms. 



poses ; for calling the attention of the people to important proclamations ; 
for declaration of war; and for demonstrations of joy. See Lev. xxv, 9; 
Judges iii. 27; 1 Sam. xiii, 3; 2 Chron. xv, 24; Isa. xviii, 3. 

448.— CALF-WORSHIP. 
CVI, 19, 20. They made a calf in Horeb, and worshiped the 
molten image. Thus they changed their glory into the simil- 
itude of an ox that eateth grass. 

There is thought to be an allusion here to a custom which was practiced 
in Egypt iu connection with the worship of the sacred calf, Apis. Godwyn 
says: " The party that repaired unto him tendered a bottle of hay or grass;' 
which, if he received, then it betokened a good and happy event; if, other- 
wise, he refused it, then it did portend some evil to come." — Moses and 
Aaron, book iv, chapter 5. 



449.— OFFERINGS FOR THE DEAD. 
CVI, 28. They joined themselves also unto Baal-peor, and ate 
the sacrifices of the dead. 

Allusion is supposed to be made here to those sacrifices which were 
anciently offered by various nations to, or in honor of, the dead. Egyptian 
funeral tablets have representations of some of these feasts. The i'riends met 
together to eat the sacrifice or 
peace-offering, which consist- 
ed of various articles — meat, 
bread, vegetables, and liquids. 
What was left by the mourn- 
ers was eaten by the wild ani- 
mals ; hence, in the hieroglyph- 
ical inscriptions the jackal is 
styled " the devourer of what 
is set out for the dead." The 
ancient Greeks had a similar 
custom. They met, after the 
funeral, at the house of the 
bereaved, and partook of an 
entertainment composed of a 
variety of animal and vegeta- 
ble substances. The broken morsels which fell from the table were looked 
on as sacred to the departed souls, and could not be lawfully eaten. " These 
fragments were carried to the tomb, and there left for the ghost to feast upon ; 
whence, to denote extreme poverty, it was usual to say that a person stole 
his meat from the graves." — Potter's Antiquities of Greece, vol. ii, p. 230 




88. — Egyptian Offerings fob the Dead. 



Psalms.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 231 



450— SHRIVELED BOTTLES. 

CXIX, 83. I am become like a bottle in the smoke. 

Bottles made of skin (see note on Matt, ix, 11) are often hung up in 
Oriental tents. Here the smoke from the tent fire can freely act upon 
them, since there is no chimney to carry it away. Skins of wine were some- 
times hung in the smoke to give the wine a peculiar flavor. "When skin 
bottles are long exposed to smoke, they become hard, shriveled, and un- 
sightly. This is the foundation of the striking figure of the text. 

451.- WATCHFUL SERVANTS. 
CXXIII, 2. Behold, as the eyes of servants look unto the hand 
of their masters, and as the eyes of a maiden unto the hand 
of her mistress, so our eyes wait upon the Lord our God, 
until that he have mercy upon us. 

Servants in the East are not always spoken to when orders are given by 
the master or mistress. The wishes of the latter are made known by signs: 
hence it becomes necessary for the servants to watch the hand of the master 
to ascertain when they are wanted and what is required of them. The 
clapping of the hands may bring them when in an adjacent room, and a 
silent motion of the hand may express the master's wish. Servants are 
trained to watch for these signs and to obey them. This custom is doubt- 
less the one alluded to in the text ; and yet there is force in the suggestion 
of Harmer, that, in its special application here, the latter part of the verse 
must not be forgotten. He paraphrases the passage thus: "As a slave, 
ordered by a master or mistress to be chastised for a fault, turns his or her 
imploring eyes to that superior, till that motion of the hand appears which 
puts an end to the bitterness that is felt, so our eyes are put up to thee, 
our God, till thy hand shall give the signal for putting an end to our 
sorrows." — Observations, vol. ii, p. 430. 

452.— GRASS ON HOUSETOPS. 
CXXIX, 6. Let them be as the grass upon the housetops, 
which withereth afore it groweth up. 

From the peculiar structure of the roofs of Eastern houses it can easily be 
seen how grass might there spring up and yet not have a flourishing growth. 
Dr. Robinson, speaking of the houses near Lebanon, says: " The flat roofs of 
the houses in this region are constructed by laying, first, large beams at in- 
tervals of several feet; then, rude joists; on which, again, are arranged small 
poles close together, or brush- wood; and upon this is spread earth or gravel 
rolled hard. This rolling is often repeated, especially after rani, for these 



232 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Psalms. 

roofs are apt to leak. For this purpose a roller of stone is kept ready for 
use on the roof of every house. Grass is often seen growing on these roofs.' 1 
— Biblical Researches, vol. iii. p. 39. 

The earth on the roof affords a starting place for the grass, but the fre- 
quent use of the roller and the trampling of feet give it but a poor chance for 
life. " It withereth afore it groweth up." The same figure is also used in 
2 Kings xix. 26. and in Isa. xxxvii, 27. 

Travelers who have visited Persia tell ns of houses the roofs of which are 
covered with green sod, from which the grass grows luxuriantly. Hay is 
said to be gathered from these roofs, and lambs are turned out on them to 
pasture. The same is reported of northern Gothic countries. The psalmist 
however, could not, as some think, have had such roofs in mind, even admit- 
ting that he ever saw them, since the application of the illustration pre-sup- 
poses grass, not of luxuriant growth, but short-lived. 

453.— OIL USED MEDICINALLY. 
CXLI, 5. Let trie righteous smite me ; it shall be a kindness : 
and let him reprove me ; it shall be an excellent oil, which 
shall not break my head. 

Oil is used in the East not only for anointing, but also for medicinal pur- 
poses. There are some complaints in the head which are supposed to be 
specially relieved by the use of certain oils. Other kinds of oil, however, are 
said to produce delirium. The " excellent oil" in the text was the kind that 
cured. Roberts adds to this statement of the medicinal use of oils on the 
head the fact that in Judea "the crown of the head is the place selected for 
chastisement. Thus, owners of slaves, or husbands, or schoolmasters, beat 
the heads of the offenders with their knuckles." The Hindus have figura- 
tive forms of speech very similar to the text : " Let a holy man smite my 
head ! and what of that ? it is an excellent oil." <; My master has been beat- 
ing my head, but it has been good oil for me." 

454.— CARYATIDES. 
CXLIV, 12. That our daughters may be as corner-stones, pol- 
ished after the similitude of a palace. 

It is thought by some that reference is made here to the Caryatides or 
columns representing female figures. These were common in Egyptian 
architecture, and their appearance was doubtless familar to the Hebrews. 
The psalmist wishes the fair daughters of the land to be like "corner columns 
finely sculptured," thus combining strength with beanty. He desires that 
thev may be noted, not merely for loveliness, but for usefulness, holding up 
the social fabric, as pillars sustain a temple. 



Psxlms.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 233 

455.— ORGANS. 

CL, 4. Praise- him with the timbrel and danee ; praise him 
with stringed, instruments and. organs. 

The ugdb was one of the most ancient instruments, its invention being 
ascribed to Jubal. Gen. iv, 21. From Job xxi, 12, and xxx, 31, it appears to 
have been used on festive occasions. In the text it is spoken of as appro- 
priate for use in the worship of God. 

Various opinions have been expressed in reference to the character of this 
instrument. Winer, {Bib. Realm..) and Leyrer, (in Herzog's Real-Encyklo- 
■pddie.) following some very old authorities, suppose the ugdb to have resem- 
bled the bagpipe. They represent it as consisting of two pipes fastened in 
a leather bag, one above and the other below. Through the upper pipe, 
which had a mouth-piece, the bag was tilled with air, while the lower pipe 
had holes which were played on with the fingers like a flute, the bag mean- 
while rising and falling like a bellows, by means of pressure. 

Most authorities, however, identify the ugdb with the syrinx or " Pandean 
pipes," which is undoubtedly a very ancient instrument, and is generally con- 
ceded to be the germ of the modern organ. Kitto says that the syrinx was 
the instrument which was meant by our translators when they used the 
word "organ; " thus relieving them from the charge of obscurity, that word 
having changed its meaning since their day. 

The syrinx was used by the Arcadian and other Grecian shepherds, and 
was supposed by them to have been invented by Pan, their tutelary god, who 
was sometimes heard playing on it, as they imagined, on Mount Maenalus. 
It was made of cane, reed, or hemlock. " In general, seven hollow stems of 
these plants were fitted together b} r means of wax, having been previously 
cut to the proper length, and adjusted so as to form an octave; but some- 
times nine were admitted, giving an equal number of notes. Another refine- 
ment in the construction of this instrument, which, however, was rarely 
practiced, was to arrange the pipes in a curve so as to fit the form of the lip, 
instead of arranging them in a plane." — Smith, Did. Greek and Roman Ant. 

This instrument is still used in some parts of the East. The reeds are of 
unequal length, but of equal thickness, and vary in number from five to 
twenty-three. Specimens may be occasionally seen in European and Amer- 
ican cities in the possession of itinerant street musicians. 

456.— CYMBALS. 
CL, 5. Praise him upon the loud cymbals; praise him upon 
the high-sounding cymbals. 

The ancient cymbals resembled those in use in our day, consisting of two 
circular concave plates of brass, or other metal, and producing a clanging 
fcound by being struck against each other. 

15 



234 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Psalms. 



Two kinds are supposed to be mentioned in the text. The "loud cym- 
bals" are thought to have corresponded to the castanets which are used 

by the Moors and Spaniards as 
an accompaniment to guitars and 
dances. Two of these small cym- 
bals were held in each hand. 
The "high-sounding cymbals" are 
thought to have been the larger 
kind that we are accustomed to see 
in military bands. They were thus 
used in ancient times, and were 
also employed by the Hebrews in 
Divine worship as an accompani- 
ment to the chorus of singers. 
1 Chron. xv, 16 ; xxv, 6 ; 2 Chron. 
v, 13. Paul refers to this instru- 
ment in 1 Cor. xiii, 1 : " Though I 
speak with the tongues of men and 
angels, and have not charity, I am 
become as sounding brass, or a 
'.— Eunuch Playing on the Cymbals, tinkling cymbal." 

(KOYUNJIK.) 




THE PROVERBS. 

457— EXTERNAL APPLICATIONS. 
Ill, 8. It shall be health, to thy navel, and marrow to thy bones. 

Sir John Chardin supposes that allusion is here made to the custom, so 
prevalent in the East, of making external applications of oils, ointments, 
plasters, and frictions, especially on the stomach and abdomen. In addition 
to this the passage may obtain further illustration from a fact mentioned by 
Roberts. He says that in India " the navel is often spoken of as a criterion 
of prosperity;" and he gives several proverbial expressions which are fre- 
quently used to denote good fortune, in which a figure is brought out s milar 
to that in the text. 



VI, 13. 



45§— TALKING BY SIGNS. 
He speaketh with his feet, he teaeheth with his fingers. 



Feet and fingers are frequently used in the East as a means of coromu- 
licating ideas, especially when in the presence of those from whom it is 



Proverbs.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 235 

intended to conceal the information imparted, and who might hear if words 
were uttered. Certain movements of hands and feet are understood to have 
a definite meaning, so that merchants have been known to bargain in the 
presence of others by sitting on tile ground with a piece of cloth thrown 
over the lap, under which they arrange their terms by the movements of their 
fingers. In a similar way the Brahmins convey religious mysteries to their 
disciples, their hands being concealed in the folds of their robes. Thus they 
teach " with their fingers.-' See also John xiii, 24. 

Debauchees and dancing girls are in the habit of making gestures and 
movements with their feet. Some suppose Solomon to refer to these when 
he speaks of the " naughty person " as he does in the text. The practice 
was known among the ancient Romans and is described by classic 
authors. 

459.— COVERINGS OF TAPESTRY. 
VII, 16. I have decked, my bed with coverings of tapestry, 
with, carved works, with fine linen of Egypt. 

Eres, " bed," is supposed by some writers to signify bedstead, and they 
think the text refers to a custom of hanging over the bedstead a canopy of 
richly woven stuff covering a frame. Others suppose the text to refer to 
the rich bed clothing which is found in the houses of wealthy Orientals. 
We are told by travelers of coverlets of green and crimson satin ornamented 
with gold embroidery, and presenting an appearance of great splendor ; in 
fact, being more ornamental than useful, especially when it is considered that 
the large cushions which are used as pillows sometimes have embroidery 
upon them so thick as seriously to interfere with comfort when the head 
rests on it. " Coverings of tapestry " are also mentioned in Prov. xxxi, 22. 

460.— MIXED WINE. 
IX, 2. She hath killed her beasts, she hath mingled her wine, 
she hath also furnished her table. 

Harmer supposes that by " mixed wine " is meant old wine that is drawn 
from jars where it becomes turbid and strong by being mingled with the lees. 
" Mixed wine " would then mean old or strong wine, and the announcement in 
the text that Wisdom " hath mingled her wine," means that she has opened 
the wine for use, the feast being ready. Bishop Lowth also supposes mixed 
wine to be strong wine, but made so, not in the way suggested by Harmer, 
but by the admixture of foreign substances ; affirming that, •' whereas 
the Greeks and Latins by mixed ivine always understood wine diluted and 
lowered with water, the Hebrews, on the contrary, generally mean by it 
wine made stronger and more inebriating by the addition of higher and 
more powerful ingredients, such as honey, spices, defrutum, (or wine inspis- 



236 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Proverbs. 

sated b) r boiling it down to two thirds or one half of the quantity,) myrrh, 
mandragora, opiates, and other strong drugs." — Commentary on Isaiah 
i, 22. 

Kitto, on the other hand, gives it as his opinion that in most, if not all, 
cases where mixed wine is spoken of, wine mingled with water is meant ; 
and he quotes Isaiah i, 22, as an illustration : " Thy silver is become dross, 
thy wine mixed with water." But he forgets that the prophet is there 
speaking, not of wine as ordinarily drank at feasts, but of wine that is 
deteriorated in quality. Gesenius expresses it, "adulterated, spoiled by 
mixing water with it." G-od's people had become debased, they were like 
wine mixed with water. The other passages which speak of mixed wine 
most certainly seem to refer to a liquor that is strengthened, rather than 
weakened, by that with which it is mixed. See Psa. lxxv, 8 ; Prov. xxiii, 30 ; 
Sol. Song viii, 2; Isa. v, 22. 

461.— STRIKING HANDS. 
XI, 21. Though, hand, join in hand, the wicked shall not be 
unpunished. 

Literally, " hand to hand." Striking hands, or touching hands, is an Orien- 
tal mode of sealing a bargain, and is sometimes practiced even in this country. 
"Give us your hand on that" is a colloquial expression occasionally heard 
among an inferior class of traders. In the East the parties making a con- 
tract touch each other's right hands, and then each raises his hand to his 
lips or forehead. Sometimes the hands are simply joined. The text, then, 
is expressive of a covenant. See also Ezra x, 19 ; Ezek. xvii, 18. A more 
solemn form of expressing faithfulness, amounting, indeed, to an oath, is seen 
in the uplifted hand. See note on Gen. xiv, 22, and also on Ezek. xxi, 14. 

Joining hands was frequently practiced as a mode of pledging security, 
and is thus referred to iu Job xvii, 3 ; Prov. vi, 1 ; xvii, 18 ; xxii, 26. 

For remarks on "giving the hand" as a pledge of submission, see note on 
Jer. 1, 15. 

462.— LOW DOORWAYS. 
XVII, 19. He that exalteth his gate seeketh destruction. 

In the open country where the houses are exposed to the' depredations of 
wandering Arabs the gates are made very low, so as to prevent the maraud- 
ers from riding through the porch into the court. A high gate would be an 
invitation to enter. Even in cities the gates of houses are often made low 
and unattractive in appearance, affording no indication of the wealth which 
may be within, lest the cupidity of wicked rulers should be attracted. 
Travelers speak of house-gates as low as three feet from the ground. In 
Persia a lofty gate is one of the signs of royalty, which some of the subjects, 
in their vanity, imitate as far as they dare. 



Proverbs.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 237 

Anderson says : (i The house in which I dwelt in Jerusalem had an arch, 
or gate- way, a few yards from the door, which was so low that a person 
on horseback could not pass under it. It was evidently built for the sake 
of security." — Bible Light from Bible Lands, p. 329. 

The meaning of the text undoubtedly is, He who has a high gate to his 
house invites the robber by a show of prosperity and by affording facility of 
entrance. He thus "seeketh destruction." 



463.— THE LOT. 
XVIII, 18. The lot eauseth contentions to cease, and parteth 
between the mighty. See also chap, xvi, 33. 

The use of the lot, as a mode of settling disputed questions, is very an- 
cient, and was practiced by most ancient nations. It was resorted to in 
reference to almost all the varied affairs of life. Magistrates and priests 
were appointed by it, and the land of conquered enemies was distributed 
by its means. 

Among the Hebrews we find its use sanctioned by Divine authority. 
Thus the scape goat was selected by lot. Lev. xvi, 8. The inheritances of 
the tribes in the Land of Promise were determined in the same way. Num. 
xxxiv, 13 ; Josh, xiv, 2. The lot was used on various occasions subse- 
quently. We cite a few instances. The men who attacked Gibeah were 
selected by lot. Judges xx, 9. In this manner Jonathan was detected as 
the violator of Saul's command concerning fasting, in his fight with the 
Philistines. 1 Sam. xiv, 41, 42. In this way the positions of the porters in 
the temple were decided. 1 Chron. xxvi, 13. When the storm arose on 
board the ship where Jonah was. the heathen sailors cast lots to determine 
who had brought them into trouble. Jonah i, 7. 

In the New Testament we have allusions to the same practice. The 
Roman soldiers divided the garments of the Saviour by lot. Matt, xxvii, 35; 
Mark xv, 24. In this manner Matthias was chosen to fill the place of Judas. 
Acts i, 26. 

We have no information given in Scripture concerning the mode by which 
lots were cast. Among the Latins, especially where several parties were 
concerned, "little counters of wood, or of some other light material, were 
put into a jar (called sitella) with so narrow a neck that only one could come 
out at a time. After the jar had been filled with water and the contents 
shaken, the lots were determined by the order in which the bits of wood, rep- 
resenting the several parties, came out with the water. In other cases 
they were put into a wide, open jar and the counters were drawn out by the 
hand. Sometimes, again, they were cast in the manner of dice." — Pairbairn, 
Imperial Bible Dictionary, s. v.. Lot. 



238 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Proverbs. 



Roberts describes the mode by which property is divided by lot in India, 
as follows: " They draw on the ground the cardinal points, thus: They then 
write the names of the parties on separate 
leaves and mix them all together. A little 
child is then called, and told to take one leaf 
and place it on any point of the compass he 
pleases; this being done, the leaf is opened, 
and to the person whose name is found therein 
will be given the field or garden which is in 
that direction." — Oriental Illustrations, p. 231. 

He further states that the Hindus settle 
every disputed question by lot. They decide 
what physician they shaU have, and what rem- 
edies, and even leave the selection of a wife to 
the same blind chance. 



W 




K 



90.— Lot-Compass. 



464.— DWELLING ON THE HOUSE-TOP. 
XXI, 9. It is better to dwell in a corner of the house-top than 
with a brawling woman in a wide house. See also chap, xxv, 24. 

It is customary to build on the flat roofs of Eastern houses arbors, or 
booths, (called "tabernacles" in Matt, xvii, 4.) for the purpose of resting 
from the heat of the day during the summer. They are also occupied as 
sleeping-chambers at night. Some suppose that Saul slept in a place of this 
sort, though he may have slept on the open roof. See 1 Sam. ix, 25, 26. 
These temporary structures serve an excellent purpose at the season of the 
year for which they are specially designed, but as a place in which to 
"dwell" permanently they are, of course, very undesirable. The rain and 
cold would soon drive the inhabitants from them. Tet in the estimation of 
the wise man, a cheerless spot like this is preferable as a place of residence 
to a large house with plenty of room and all conveniences, provided " a 
brawling woman " is in it! 



465.— BEAUTIFUL WORK IN METAL. 
XXV, 11. A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures 
of silver. 

Maskiyoth, "pictures," is supposed by some to convey the idea of carved 
work, rather than that of painted work, and hence they would refer it in this 
place to something that is made by the skill of the carver or the engraver, 
such as a salver of silver with chased work upon it, and having fruit of gold. 
Others think that silver baskets of filigree work are meant, the fruit con- 
tained in them being real and of a prolden color, or else artificial, and made 



Proverbs.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 239 

of gold. Either of these interpretations would be consistent with Eastern 
customs. Roberts suggests that, inasmuch as in verses 6 and 7 mention is 
made of the manner in which one should approach a king, Solomon in this 
verse had before his mind the presents which are sometimes made to Orien- 
tal monarchs — golden ornaments in the shape of fruit, placed on highly pol- 
ished silver salvers. 

466.— SNOW USED IN SUMMER. 

XXV, 13. As the cold of snow in the time of harvest, so is a 
faithful messenger to them that send him : for he refresheth the 
soul of his masters. 

It is evident that this cannot refer to the coming of winter weather in 
summer, since the application of the figure supposes something desirable, 
which certainly could not be said of a fall of snow in harvest time. The 
custom, so common in the East to-day, of cooling wines with snow or ice, 
was doubtless practiced in the time of Solomon. Mount Lebanon supplies a 
large country in its neighborhood from the inexhaustible stores of snow upon 
its top. The snow is mixed with the wine, thus making the latter more 
palatable; so a faithful messenger is a source of refreshment to "the soul 
of his masters." 

467.— HINGES. 

XXVI, 14. As the door turneth upon his hinges, so doth the 
slothful upon his bed. 

The hinges of Eastern houses are not like ours, but consist of pivots in- 
serted into sockets both above and below. In the Hauran there are still 
standing stone houses with stone slabs for doors, having pivots cut out 
of the same and turning in sockets prepared for them in the wall of the 
house. 

46§.— THE NUMBER SEVEN. 
XXVI, 25. When he speaketh fair, believe him not : for there 
are seven abominations in his heart. 

The number seven is used frequently in Scripture, and expresses the idea 
of completeness or fullness. Thus the text represents the hypocrite as hav- 
ing a heart filled with abominations. This figurative use of the number 
seven obtains in some parts of the East at the present day. It is frequently 
employed to signify an indefinite number, but always a large number, and 
hence conveys the idea of sufificiencj". The Scripture passages where the 
word " seven " is used are too numerous to be quoted here. They are scat- 
tered all through the Bible, especially in the prophetical books; the book of 
Revelation making most frequent symbolical use of the word. 



240 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Pro veil s. 



The interesting question, Why the number seven should be regarded a 
perfect number? is one the discussion of which does not fall within the 
scope assigned to this work. Those who desire information on this subject, 
and also oh the general question of the sacred numbers used in the Bible, 
may consult, in addition to the various Bible Dictionaries and Encyclopedias, 
Stuart on the Apocalypse, in his Introduction, § T, " Numerosity of the Apoca- 
lypse," vol. i, p. 130; and in Excursus II, "On the Symbolical Use of Num- 
bers in the Apocalypse," vol. ii, p. 409. Dr. Whedon also has a very valua- 
ble and characteristic note on the same subject in his Commentary on the 
Gospels, vol. ii, p. 77. 

469.— LEAKY ROOFS. 
XXVII, 15. A continual dropping in a very rainy day and a 
contentious woman are alike. See also chap, xix, 13. 

Reference is undoubtedly made here to the frequent leaks to which the 
flat roofs of Eastern houses are subject. Having merely a covering of earth, 
rolled smooth and hard, (see note on Psa. cxxix, 6,) a heavy rain will soon 
succeed in finding its way through, when the drops will fall into the room 
below, thus making it uncomfortable, if not actually uninhabitable. Trav- 
elers are frequently disturbed in this manner during violent storms, some- 
times being obliged to change their quarters in the middle of the night. 



470.— MORTARS. 
XXVII, 22. Though thou shouldest bray a fool in a mortar 
among wheat with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart 
from him. 

Mortars, for cracking grain by pounding with 
a pestle, are often used in the East. They are 
made of metal, earthenware, wood, or stone, 
the last being the most common material. The 
pestle is usually about five feet long. Some- 
times two pestles are used at the same time for 
one mortar, the two persons holding them 
striking alternate blows, like blacksmiths at an 
anvil. The ancient Israelites used the mortar 
for beating their manna, ifum. xi, 8. 

There is no evidence that the Hebrews ever 
administered punishment literally in the way 
indicated in the text, but it has been done 
among other nations. Beating to death in a 
91.— Egyptian Mortar, mortar is a State punishment which is some- 

time? inflicted in Turkey and in India. 




Proverbs.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 241 



471.— BUTTER-MAKING. 
XXX, 33. Surely the churning of milk bringeth forth butter, 
and. the wringing of the nose bringeth forth blood : so the 
forcing of wrath bringeth forth strife. 

There is but little in the Eastern mode of preparing butter that is similar 
to our churning. The milk is put into a bag or bottle, made of the 
skin of a goat or of a buffalo, and is agitated in various ways until the 
butter, such as it is, comes. See note on Gen. xviii, 8. Sometimes the skin 
containing the milk is shaken to and fro, or beaten with sticks. Some- 
times it is placed on the ground and trodden upon. Thus Job says, " I 
washed my steps with butter." Jcb xxix, 6. Again, it is pressed or squeezed 
with the hands, so that the contents become agitated and gradually coagu- 
late. This last method is probably referred to in the text. There is a 
beauty in the original which does not appear in our English version. The 
word mits is thrice repeated, but is translated by three different terms : 
"churning," "wringing," "forcing." It literally means "pressing" or 
"squeezing," just as the skin bag is pressed or squeezed for the production 
of butter. The nose treated in a similar manner will bleed, and wrath 
which is thus " pressed " will result in strife. 



ECCLESIASTES. 

472.— WHITE GARMENTS. 
IX, 8. Let thy garments be always white. 

In the warm countries of the East white clothing is more frequently and 
generally worn than with us. This allusion to white garments is a beauti- 
ful figurative exhortation to perpetual purity of character, and one that 
would be readily appreciated by the Oriental mind. " May God blacken his 
face " is a common imprecation in the East. Mohammed is often called " He 
of the white face." In the Bible there are a number of references to white 
garments as typical of purity. In Dan. vii, 9, the Deity is represented as 
clad in a "garment white as snow." "When Jesus was transfigured " his 
raiment was white as the light." Matt, xvii, 2. The angels appeared in 
white robes when the disciples visited the tomb of their risen Lord, (Matt, 
xxviii, 3; Mark xvi. 5; Luke xxiv, 4; John xx, 12.) and also when he as- 
cended into heaven. Acts i, 10. The redeemed are to be clothed in white. 
Rev. vii. 1?> ; xix. 14. 



242 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Eccles'.astss. 



473.— BREAD ON THE WATERS. 

XI, 1. Cast thy bread upon the 'waters: for thou shalt find it 
after many days. 

Many interpreters are of the opinion that there is here an allusion to the 
manner of sowing rice in Egypt, that is, by scattering it broadcast in the 
mud, or upon the overflowing waters of the Nile. Others, however, dispute 
this, claiming that there is no evidence of the cultivation of rice having 
been introduced into Egypt as early as the days of Solomon. These com- 
mentators consider the expression merely figurative without being based on 
any actual custom. 



THE SONG OF SOLOMON. 

4Y4.— TENTS. 

I, 5. I ana black, but comely, O ye daughters of Jerusalem, 
as the tents of Kedar, as the curtains of Solomon. 

Tents were among the early habitations of man, though not the earliest, 
since they were not introduced until the time of Jabal, who was in the seventh 
generation from Adam. See Gen. iv, 20. The first tents were doubtless 
made of skins, though afterward when the process of weaving became known 
they were made, as they are at this day, of cloth of camels' hair, or of goats' 
hair, spun by the women. The latter is the material most commonly used 
by the Arabs, and since the goats are usually black, or a very dark brown, 
the tents exhibit the same appearance; It was thus in the days of Solomon 
with the tents made by the descendants of the Ishmaelitish Kedar. These 
tents individually are not very beautiful objects, but when arranged in the 
form of a circular encampment, with the cattle inclosed by the circle of 
tents, and the sheikh's tent in the center, they present a picturesque 
appearance. Balaam was impressed with the beauty of such a scene when 
he beheld the vast encampment of the Israelites, and exclaimed, '' How 
goodly are thy tents, Jacob, and thy tabernacles, Israel!" Num. xxiv, 5. 

The Arab tents are of various sizes, according to the number of the family 
or the wealth of the proprietor. The number of poles to a tent varies from 
one to nine. Some tents are circular in shape, some square, and others 
oblong. The covering is spread over the poles, which are fastened in the 
ground. The edges of the cover have leather loops, to which are attached 
the cords of the tent, which are sometimes stretched out tight and fastened 



Solomon's Song.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 245 

to the ground by means of iron or wooden pins, or else are fastened to 
upright posts, on which a curtain is hung around the tent, forming the walls, 
which can be removed at pleasure without disturbing the rest of the tent. 
Other cords reach from the top of the tent to the ground, where they are 
fastened with pins, thus steadying the whole structure. It was one of these 
pins which Jael drove into the head of Sisera. Judges iv, 21. 

The tent erected, and its cords stretched out, are often figuratively alluded 
to in the Bible. Thus Isaiah represents God as the one " that stretcheth 
out the heavens as a curtain, and spreadeth them out as a tent to dwell in." 
Isa. xl, 22. He also says, in speaking of the glorious prosperity of the 
Church and the need of enlargement, " Enlarge the place of thy tent, and let 
them stretch forth the curtains of thine habitations : spare not, lengthen thy 
cords, and strengthen thy stakes." Isa. liv, 2. See also Isa. xxxiii, 20. 

It is a work of some effort to pitch a tent properly, especially a large one, 
requiring the united efforts of willing hands. Hence the pathetic language 
of Jeremiah in mourning over the desolations of God's people : " My taber- 
nacle is spoiled, and all my cords are broken : my children are gone forth of 
me, and they are not : there is none to stretch forth my tent any more, and 
to set up my curtains." Jer. x, 20. 

The large tents have nine poles, placed in three rows, covering sometimes 
a space twenty to twenty-five feet long, ten feet wide, and eight to ten feet 
high in the middle, with the sides sloping. Such tents often have a curtain 
hung on the middle row of poles, dividing the tent into two parts, one for 
the men, and the other for the women. See notes on Gen. xviii, 10; 
xxiv, 67. The poles which thus uphold the tent and divide it into sections 
are further made useful by having hooks driven into them from which are 
suspended clothes, baskets, saddles, weapons, and various other articles of 
daily use. 

These tents are rapidly struck and removed from place to place, so that 
the eye which to-day rests on a large encampment active with life may to- 
morrow behold nothing but a wilderness. Thus Isaiah says, "Mine age is 
departed, and is removed from me as a shepherd's tent." Isa. xxxviii, 12. 
The facility with which tents are taken down, and the frailty of their material, 
are beautifully alluded to by Paul in 2 Cor. v, 1. See also 2 Peter i, 13, 1.4. 

Tents of cotton, linen, or silk are used for traveling or for holiday pur- 
poses, are of all colors, and are sometimes very magnificent. Stories which 
would be incredible if not from good authorities, are told of the splendor of 
state tents which have been reared by Oriental monarchs. Silver, gold, 
precious stones, silk, velvet, camels' hair cloth, and brocades, have combined 
to make these structures at once costly and splendid. The state tents of 
Tamerlane are said to have had poles of silver inlaid with gold, curtains of 
vplvet, and mpps of silk. Nadir Shah had a snre tent the outride ol which 



246 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Solomon's Song. 



was of fine scarlet broadcloth, and the lining of violet-colored satin. On 
this lining were embroideries in pearls, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, amethysts, 
and other precious stones, representing birds, beasts, trees, and flowers. 

No description is given us of Solomon's state tents; indeed, some suppose 
that the " curtains " mentioned in the text refer to some of the splendid 
hangings of his palace. The unity of the passage, however, suggests the 
idea of tents, and it is not at all improbable that Solomon, the luxurious 
monarch who spared no expense to gratify his taste, had tents of magnifi- 
ceuce commensurate with his royal grandeur. The King of Babylon had a 
royal pavilion though no description is given of it. Jer. xliii, 10. 

475.— SHEPHERDS' NOONING. 
I, 7. Tell me, O thou whom my soul loveth, where thou feed- 
est, where thou makest thy flock to rest at noon. 

During the heat of the day the shepherds are in the habit of leading their 
flocks to some cool and shady spot, where they recline and rest until the 
shadows lengthen. The sheep sleep, or chew the cud, while the shepherds 
pass the time in some light employment, such as plaiting mats, or in musing 
or story telling. 

476.— JEWELS— NECKLACES. 

I, 10. Thy cheeks are comely with rows of jewels, thy neck 
with chains of gold. 

1. Eastern women sometimes have a cord of gold around their head at the 
forehead, on which are strung precious stones of various sorts, which hang 
down over the cheeks of the fair wearers. Thus their "cheeks are comely 
with rows of iewels." 





Assyrian and Egyptian :Neok Chains. 



Solomon's Song.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



247 



2. Neck chains were made of gold or other metal, or else consisted of 
strings of pearls, corals, and precious stones. They were sometimes made 
of gold-pieces shaped like a half-moon. Such are referred to in Isa. hi, 18: 
'•round tires like the moon." See also note on Judges viii, 21. These neck- 
laces hung low down upon the breast, and were worn both by men and 
women. See Prov. i, 9 ; iii, 3. This was the custom among the Egyptians 
as well as the Hebrews ; Joseph had a gold chain put around his neck by 
Pharaoh. Gen. xli, 42. The Medes, Persians, Babylonians, and other an- 
cient naiions, followed the same custom. See Dam v, 7, 16, 29. Neck chains 
are also referred to in Sol. Song iv, 9; Ezek. xvi, 11. 

477.— USE OF RAISINS. 
II, 5. Stay me with flagons, comfort me with, apples. 

Ashishoth, "flagons," is conceded by the best authorities to mean, not 
drinking vessels, but cakes of pressed raisins, such as are often used iu the 
East, by travelers, for refreshment. The word also occurs in 2 Sam. vi, 19 ; 
1 Chron. xvi, 3 ; and Hosea iii, 1. In the last passage anabim, which is ren- 
dered " wine," should be translated " grapes," as it is in the margin. Instead 
of "flagons of wine," we should then read "cakes of grapes." Some think 
there is a reference in that passage to the custom of offering such cakes 
in sacrifice to heathen deities. 



47§.— THE ROYAL LITTER. 
Ill, 9, 10. King Solomon made himself a chariot of the wood, of 
Lebanon. He made the pillars thereof of silver, the bottom 
thereof of gold, the covering of it of purple. 

Appiryon, "chariot," is a litter, or palanquin, a vehicle of very ancient 
use, and still common in the East. The same conveyance is referred to in 
the word tsab in Num. 
vii, 3, and Isa. lxvi, 20. 
In the former passage 
it is translated "wag- 
on," in the latter "lit- 
ter." The palanquin is 
made of a light frame- 
work of wood, and is 
covered with cloth, hav- 
ing a lattice door or 
window at each side. 
Two strong poles are 
fastened to it, which in 
India are borne on the 94.— Ancient Egyptian Litter or Palanquin. 




248 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Solomon's'Sang. 

shoulders of men, but in "Western Asia are harnessed to mules, horses, or 
camel?, one of the animals being at each end. Occasionally four beasts are 
employed, two at each end, and sometimes a litter is so contrived as to be 
fastened to the back of a single camel. Engraving number 11, p. 40, has a 
representation of a camel litter. 

Litters are often of great magnificence, especially if they belong to royalty. 
The -woodwork is richly carved, and ornamented with gold, and silver, and 
precious stones. The canopy is of silk, satin, or brocade, and ornamented 
with jewels. These conveyances are ordinarily shaped like a couch, and are 
so made that the traveler can lie down at full length if desired. 

479.— CITY WATCHMEN. 

V, T. The watchmen that went about the city found, me, they 
smote me, they wounded me ; the keepers of the walls took 
away my vail from me. 

There were not only watchmen stationed on the walls to guard against 
the approach of enemies, (see note on 2 Sam. xviii, 26,) but there were others 
whose duty it was to patrol the streets of the city and preserve order. See 
Psa. cxxvii, 1 ; Sol. Song iii, 3. There are such in Oriental cities to-day, and 
they challenge all persons found abroad after certain hours of the night, 
arresting those that are not able to give a good account of themselves, and 
sometimes subjecting them to rough treatment. 



ISAIAH. 



480.— TREATMENT OF WOUNDS. 

I, 6. They have not been closed, neither bound up, neither 
mollified with ointment. 

The Hebrews had but little knowledge of surgery, les* than the Egyptians. 
They seldom used inward remedies, but trusted mainly to outward applica- 
tions. See note on Prov. iii, 8. The text illustrates the treatment of 
wounds; they were "closed," that is, the lips of the wound were pressed 
together and bound, that cohesion of the parts might be effected. " There 
was, and is, no sewing up of wounds in the East ; and hence the edges, 
healing without being perfectly united, make the scar of a wound more con- 
spicuous and disfiguring than with us. The only attempt to produce cohe- 
sion is by 'binding up ' the wound, after the edges have been as far as possi- 
ble 'closed' by simple pressure.''— Kitto. Baity Bible Tllus., vol. vi. p. 25. 



Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 2-±9 



481.— LODGE IN A GARDEN. 
I, 8. The daughter of Zion is left as a cottage in a vineyard, as 
a lodge in a garden of cucumbers. 

As the fields were not always provided with fences it became necessary 
to have persons to watch them, especially while the fruit was ripening, 
in order to keep off all depredators, whether man, beast, or bird. These 
"keepers of a field" are referred to in Jer. iv, 17, and they are still to be 
seen iu the East. During the ripening season they watch day and night 
and through all sorts of weather, and hence need some protection from ex- 
cessive heat, dew, or storm. This protection is found in temporary huts, 
wh ; ch are made of closely twined branches and leaves, or of pieces of mat- 
ting thrown over a rude framework of poles. There is an allusion to such a 
frail structure in Job xxvii, 18, and also in Isa. xxiv, 20. When the crop is 
gathered and the field forsaken the deserted lodge soon leans and falls, and 
the whole scene is one of utter loneliness. It was such a picture of deso- 
lation to which the prophet compares "the daughter of Zion." 

4§2.— PLOWSHARES. 
II, 4. They shall beat their swords into plowshares. See also 
Joel iii, 10, and Micah iv, 3. 

In the passage in Joel the expression is reversed: "Beat your plowshares 
into swords." Commentators are divided as to the meaning of ittim, va- 
riously rendering it "plowshares," "spades," "hoes," "mattocks." The 
word refers to instruments for stirring up the soil in some way, and, so far 
as concerns capability of conversion to swords, these may as well have been 
plowshares as any thing else. The plowshare was a small piece of iron, 
which somewhat resembled a short sword, and might easily have beeu 
beaten into one, and with equal facility a sword could have been changed 
iuto a plowshare. 

483.— DANCING-GIRLS— ANKLETS. 
Ill, 16. Because the daughters of Zion are haughty, and walk 
with stretehed-forth necks and wanton eyes, walking and 
mincing as they go, and making a tinkling with their feet. 

1. Roberts finds in this and in the following verses an accurate description 
of the Hindoo dancing-girls who are trained for service in idolatrous temples. 
" When these females dance they stretch forth their necks, and hold them 
awry, as if their heads were about to fall off their shoulders." "As the 
votaries glide along they roll their eyes, (which are painted,) and cast wan- 
ton glances on those around." — Oriental Illustrations, p. 386. 



250 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Isaiah. 



2. Some suppose the "mincing" refers to a tripping step in the dance; 
others think that the reference is to slender golden chains reaching from one 
ankle to another, and compelling them to take short and rapid steps. See 
note on verse 20. 

3. The "tinkling with their feet" may 
Lave been made simply by the striking of 
anklets one upon another, or by bells or 
other small ornaments attached to the an- 
klets. These anklets were of gold, silver, or 
iron, according to the taste or means of the 
wearer, and are still worn by Oriental wom- 
en. They are sometimes quite heavy, and 
special paius are taken to strike them to- 
gether, in order to make a jingle. When 
they are hollow, as is often the case, the 
sharp sound is increased. In Egypt and in 
India some of the anklets have small round 
bells attached to them, and these bells some- 
times have little pebbles in them, which 
strike like tiny clappers. Leyrer (in Herzog's Real. Ency., vol. vii, p. 731) 
suggests that it may have been in some such way that the wife of Jeroboam 
announced her presence, " when Abijah heard the sound of her feet, as she 
came in at the door." 1 Kings xiv, 6. 




Ancient Egyptian Anklets. 



4§4.— CAULS— TIRES. 
Ill, 18. Their cauls and their round, tires like the moon. 

1. What is meant by shebisim, " cauls," is not certain. The marginal 
reading is " net-works," and man}- writers suppose that nets for the hair are 
meant. These were ancient- 
ly worn, as is evident from 
the Egyptian and Assyrian 
monuments, and from speci- 
mens which have found their 

way to museums. Others f~- -y \ / / 

think that reference is made 
l-.ere to the mode of dressing 96.— Assyeian Nets foe the Hale. 

the hair, arranging it into tresses, and attaching to it golden ornaments and 
small o.oins, or so braiding it as to resemble checker-work. A German au- 
thor (Schroeder) conjectures that shebisim were small metallic ornaments re- 
sembling the sun, and he would associate them with the moon-ornaments 
mentioned in the same verse. This interpretation is accepted by Fuerst. and 
others, but rejected by authorities equally good. 





Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 251 

2. Saharonim, "round tires like the moon," were metallic moon-shaped 
ornaments hung around the neck. Similar ornaments were sometimes hung 
about the necks of camels. See note on Judges viii, 21. 

485.— JEWELRY AND VAILS. 
IIL, 19. The chains and. the bracelets and. the mufflers. 

1. Ne.tiphoth, "chains," were properly pendents, or ear-drops-. See note 
on Gen. xxxv, 4. 

2. Sheroth, "bracelets," were probably bracelets made of gold wire, mid 
wreathed or woven. 

3. Realoth, " mufflers," were thin vails. The Hebrew name was given to 
them because of their tremulous or fluttering motion. 

4§6.— SUNDRY ARTICLES, USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL. 
Ill, 20. The bonnets, and the ornaments of the legs, and the 
headbands, and the tablets, and the ear-rings. 

1. The "bonnets" of the Oriental women, it is hardly necessary to say, 
bear no resemblance to the articles known by that name among us. They 
resemble the turbaned head-dresses of the men, but are less bulky and of 
finer materials. A cap is put on the head around which are wound rich 
handkerchiefs or shawls, folded high and flat. Gold and silver ornaments 
and jewels are added according to the taste of the wearer. The original 
word peer conveys the idea of ornament, and is rendered "beauty" in Isa. 
Lxi, 3; "ornaments" in Isa. lxi, 10; and "tire" in Ezek. xxiv, 17, 23. 
Saalschutz supposes the peer to have been a metallic crown of filigree work, 
fastened around the cap. 

2. "The ornaments of the legs" (tseadoth) were probably step-chains, 
that is, " short chains which Oriental females wore attached to the ankle- 
band of each foot, so as to compel them to take short and mincing steps, to 
walk mincingly." — Gesen t ius 

3. Kishshurim, " headband-," are supposed hy some critics to denote fillets 
for the hair. Others, however, interpret them to mean girdles. The same 
word is rendered "attire" in Jer. ii, 32. 

4. Battey-hannephesJi, "tablets," is literally "houses of breath." The 
margin has, " houses of the soul." There is thought by some to be a refer- 
ence here to boxes or bottles which were filled with perfume, and fastened 
to the necklace or the girdle. Chardin mentions having seen the women in 
Persia with small golden boxes of filigree work, which were filled with a 
black mixture of musk and amber. 

Roberts, however, disputes this interpretation, and thinks these " houses 
of the soul" find their counterpart in certain ornaments which are worn by 

16 



252 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[ Isaiah. 



Hindu women, and made of silver or gold, and richly adorned with precious 
stones. He says : " The dancing-girls, the wives of the pandarams, and 




97.— Houses of tiie Sotxl. "Worn by Hindu "Women. 

many other women, wear an ornament resembling a house, and sometimes 
a temple, which contains an image corresponding with the fyctklog of the 
Greeks and the Priapus of the Romans.'' — Oriental Illustrations, p. 388. 

5. Lechashim, " ear-rings," are thought to have been charms or amulets 
made of gold, silver, or precious stones, perhaps in the shape of serpents, or 
with serpents engraven on them. They may have been used as ear-rings 
also. See note on Gen. xxxv, 4. 



487.— APPAREL. 
Ill, 22. The changeable suits of apparel, and. the mantles, 
and. the wimples, and the crisping, pins. 

1. Machelatsoth, "changeable suits of apparel," were costly garments of 
any kind which were used only on festival occasions, and put off when at 
home. The same word is rendered '-change of raiment " in Zech. iii, 4. 

2. Maataphoth, "mantles," are supposed by some to have been cloaks 
or mantles of ample folds, which were worn outside of the other garments ; 
while others think that they were a fashionable sort of upper tunic. 

3. Mitpachoth, "wimples," were wide upper garments, the distinction 
between which and maatapTioth is not clear, unless the latter explanation 
above given is correct. The word is rendered " vail " in Ruth iii, 15. where 
see the note. 

4. Chariiim, "crisping-pins," are now thought by the best authorities to 
have had nothing to do with the hair, as our translators supposed, but to 



Isaiah.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



253 



have been richly ornamented purses of gold or embroidered work, long and 
round in form, perhaps like an inverted cone, and suspended from the girdle. 
We have the idea more correctly expressed in 2 Kings v, 23, where the 
same word is translated " bags." 



4§8.— VARIOUS ARTICLES OF ATTIRE. 
Ill, 23. The glasses, and. the fine linen, and. the hoods, and 
the vails. 

1. Gilyonim, "glasses," are probably the small metallic mirrors where- 
with Oriental women adorn their persons. See note on Exod. xxxviii, 8. 
The Septuagint, however, and a number of eminent commentators, under- 
stand the word to mean "transparent garments," referring to the garments 
of thin gauze or other material so delicately made as to reveal the form of 
the wearer. Such were the celebrated Coan garments of classic writers, and 
dresses of this sort are still used in the East, often richly ornamented with 
gold spangles. 

2. Sedinim, "fine linen," is mentioned in Judges xiv, 12, 13, as a part of 
the gift which Samson offered to any who would guess his riddle. In our 
version the word is there rendered " sheets." It also occurs in Prov. 
xxxi, 24, in Solomon's description of " a virtuous woman." The sedinim 
were inner garments or tunics. 

3. Tseniphoth, " hoods," were coverings for the head, the difference 
between which and the peerim, or "bonnets," of verse 20 it is not easy now 
to determine. The etymology of the two words would suggest that the 
tseniphoth were simply the turbaned wrappers which were wound around 
the heads, while the peerim were the same, 
with rich ornaments attached. Some writers, 
however, suppose the tseniphoth to have been 
merely ribbons for binding the hair or fasten- 
ing the tiara. The word in the singular is 
rendered " diadem " in Job xxix, 14, and Isa. 
lxii, 3. 

4. Bedidim, " vails," differed somewhat from 
the realoth, "mufflers," of verse 19. Kitto | 
supposes the " radid to have been a kind of | 
head vail which ladies wear at home, and i 
which, not being intended for concealment of I 
the features, rests upon the head and falls |j 
down over the back. It is of very light tex- |tt 
ture, being usually a long strip of muslin em- ^ 
broidered with threads of colored silk and 
gold, forming altogether one of the most 9S.— Hbad-drj 




254 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 

graceful articles in the female attire of the East." — Daily Bible Illustrations, 
vol vi, p. 53. 

4§9.— HAIR-DRESSING— GIRDLE. 
Ill, 24. Instead of well-set hair, baldness, and instead of a 
stomacher, a girding of sackcloth. 

1. The women of the East have always paid special attention to dressing 
the hair. Folds, braids, and tresses in every variety are a soi rce of pride. 
See note on 1 Peter iii, 3. On the other hand, 
baldness is considered a great calamity and is 
made an occasion for contempt. See note on 
2 Kings ii, 23. Thus the change from " well- 
set hair M to "baldness " would be regarded as 
a serious misfortune. 

2. Pethigil, " stomacher," is supposed by 
some to have been a girdle, made of beautiful 
and costly materials and richly embroidered. 
Others, from the etymology of the word, and 
from the contrast between the " stomacher " 
and the "girding of sackcloth," suppose it to 
have been a wide loose flowing mantle char- 
acteristic of luxury and wantonness. 99.— Anciext Egyptian Mode op 

"Weaking the Haik. 

490.— SITTING ON THE GROUND. 
111,26. Her gates shall lament and mourn; and she being 
desolate shall sit upon the ground. 

Sitting on the ground was a posture which denoted deep distress. When 
Job's friends came to sympathize with him, " they sat down with him upon 
the ground seven days and seven nights, and none spake a word unto him : 
for they saw that his grief was very great." Job ii, 13. "When the Jews were 
in captivity, it is said, "By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, 
we wept, when we remembered Zion." Psa. cxxxvii, 1. Jeremiah also 
alludes to the same custom in Lam. ii, 10; iii, 28. The same idea is rep- 
resented in a more intensified form in the expressions, " wallow thyself in 
ashes," Jer. vi, 26, and " roll thyself in the dust." Micah i, 10. 

Most of the Roman coins which were struck in commemoration of the 
capture of Jerusalem have on one side the figure of a woman sitting on the 
ground, usually, though not in every instance, under the shade of a palm 
tree. The figure is generally represented with one hand to the head, which 
rests upon it inclining forward, and the other hanging over the knee, thus 
presenting a picture of great grief. In one instance, however, the hands are 




Isaiah] BTBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 255 

tied behind the back. These coins were issued during the reigns of Yes- 
pasian, Titus, and Domitian, some of them being struck in Judea, and some 
in Rome. They are of gold, silver, and brass, and give an apt illustration 
of the custom referred to in the text. Representations and descriptions of 
all these coins may be found in Madden's History of Jewish Coinage, etc., 
chap. viii. 

491.— ATTENTION CALLED. 
V, 26. He -will lift up an ensign to the nations from far, and 
"will hiss unto them from the end of the earth: and, behold, 
they shall come with speed swiftly. 

Some commentators have supposed an allusion here, and in chap, vii, 18, 
to the custom of calling bees from their hives to the fields and back again 
by means of a hiss or whistle. Others, however, deny that any such custom 
existed, and claim that the allusion is to another custom prevalent in the 
East : that of calling the attention of any one in the street by a significant 
hiss. In the prophecy of Zechariah, the Lord says concerning the children of 
Epbraim, "I will hiss for them, and gather them." Zech. x, 8. Here there 
is doubtless a reference to the same custom of calling attention by a hiss. 

492.— BUTTER AND HONEY. 
VII, 15. Butter and honey shall he eat ; that he may know 
to refuse the evil, and to choose the good. 

See also verse 22. Honey is frequently mixed with various forms of 
milk-preparations and used upon bread. The Arabs in traveling often take 
leathern bottles full of honey for this purpose. It is considered very palat- 
able, especially by the children. The context shows that the reference in 
the text is made particularly to the days of childhood. The fourteenth 
verse refers to the birth of a son, and the sixteenth to his early infancy. It 
is of this child that it is said, "Butter and honey shall he eat." 

There may be in the mixture of these two substances a propriety founded 
on physiological facts. Wood, in speaking of the Musquaw, or American 
Black Bear, after giving an account of its method of obtaining the wild honey 
which is found in hollow trees, adds: "The hunters, who are equally fond 
of honey, find that if it is eaten in too great plenty it produces very unpleas- 
ant symptoms, which may be counteracted by mixing it with the oil which 
they extract from the fat of the bear." — Illustrated Natural History, vol. i, 
p. 397. We find in Prov. xxv, 16, 27, allusion to the disagreeable conse- 
quences of eating too much honey, and it is possible that experience had 
proved the oily nature of the butter a corrective of the honey. 

Butter is mentioned in connection with honey in 2 Sam. xvii, 29 ; Job 
xx, 17; Sol. Song iv, 11. Honey and oil are named together in Deut. 
xxxii, 13. 



256 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 

493.— THE MATTOCK. 
VII, 25. On all hills that shall be digged, with the mattoek. 

This instrument was probably similar to our grub-ax, and was made of 
either wood or iron. It was used in mountainous places, where a plow 
could not be easily handled, for turning up the soil. This fact is referred to 
in the text. 

494.— BALDNESS A SIGN OF MOURNING. 

XV, 2. On all their heads shall be baldness, and every beard 
cut off. 

To make the head bald, or to shave or pluck the beard, was a sign of 
mourning among the Hebrews and many other nations. See also Ezra 
ix, 3; Job i, 20; Isa. xxii, 12; Jer. vii, 29; xvi, 6; xli, 5; xlvii, 5; xlviii, 37; 
Micah i, 16. 

495.— SINGING AT WORK. 

XVI, 10. Gladness is taken away, and joy out of the plentiful 
field ; and in the vineyards there shall be no singing, neither 
shall there be shouting ; the treaders shall tread out no wine in 
their presses ; I have made their vintage shouting to cease. 

It was a common custom among the Egyptians to sing at their work. 
The Hebrews did the same, and were especially jubilant at the time of grape 
gathering. They plucked off the grapes with acclamations of joy, and car- 
ried them to the wine-press. There they alleviated the labor of treacling the 
grapes by singing, accompanied with musical instruments and joyous shouts. 
Some authorities interpret hedad, ,! shouting," as an exclamation used by the 
grape treaders as they jumped up and down. Allusions are made to the 
joyful character of the work of vintage in Judges ix, 27; Jer. xxv, 30; 
xlviii, 33. 

496.— PAPYRUS-BOATS. 
XVIII, 2. That sendeth embassadors by the sea, even in vessels 
of bulrushes upon the waters. 

The papyrus was used on the Nile for making boats. Sometimes bundles 
of the plant were rudely bound together in the form of a raft or boat; at 
other times the leaves were plaited, basket-fashion, and coated with bitumen 
and tar. See note on Exod. ii, 3. Similar boats are used on the Euphrates 
and Tigris. They are circular in shape, and are sometimes covered with 
leather instead of bitumen. 

Another style of vessel is also used on the Nile. The leaves of the papy- 
rus or the palm are placed as a floor upon rafts made of earthen jars which 
are tied together by the handle?. These jars are made in Upper Egypt, and 



Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 257 

are thus floated down stream by the potters, who sell their ware and walk 
back to their homes. 

On the Euphrates and Tigris the floats are made of inflated skins covered 
with a flooring of leaves and branches made into wicker work, and having a 




100. — Assyrian Skin-boat. 

raised bulwark of the same. These singular vessels are called kelltks, and 
are of various sizes, from the little family boat resting on three or four skins, 
to the great raft, forty feet or more in length, and of proportionate width. 
The latter sort float on several hundred skins, and bear an assorted cargo of 
merchandise besides passengers. When the cargo has reached its destina- 
tion the woodwork is sold for fuel, and the skins are taken back by land to 
be re-formed into another vessel. Boats of this description have been used 
from early historic times, and are referred to by Herodotus and other an- 
cient authors. 

497.— EGYPTIAN FISHING. 
XIX, 8. The fishers also shall mourn, and all they that east an- 
gle into the brooks shall lament, and. they that spread, nets upon 
the waters shall languish. 

Reference is made in this "burden of Egypt 1 ' (see verse 1) to the Egyp- 
tian fisheries. The Egyptians consumed enormous quantities of fish, which 
they obtained from the teeming waters of the Nile, and of the canals which 
irrigated the land. So important was the traffic in fish that at one time the 
royal profits from Lake Mceris alone amounted to a talent of silver a day, or 
about $350,000 a year. Large quantities offish were salted; and sometimes 
the fish were simply dried in the sun. Two methods of Egyptian fishing are 
mentioned in the text. 

1. ChaJckah, "angle," is rendered "hook" in Job xli, 1. Angling was a 
favorite pastime with all ranks of the Egyptians. Their hooks were of 



258 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 

bronze, and were baited with ground bait. Sometimes a short pole was ustd, 
and sometimes the fishermau held the line in his hand. 

2. Mkmoreth, "nets," was a drag-net, and is so rendered in Hab. i, 15, 16. 
It was of a lengthened form, having floats along one edge and weights along 
the other, with a rope at each end. It corresponded to our seine, and was 
sometimes cast by hand, the men wading out with it and dragging it back to 
ilie shore, bringing the fish with it. At other times a boat was used, tin? 
net being cast overboard as the boat was rowed along. The monuments 
give a number of illustrations of fishing by nets, as well as with the hook, 
though it is said that net-fishing is now unknown in Egypt. 

49§.— SHIELDS OILED. 

XXI, 5. Prepare the table, wateh in the wateh-tower, eat, 
drink : arise, ye princes, and anoint the shield. 

Shields were made of bull-hide, of two or more thicknesses, stretched over 
a frame of wood, and sometimes strengthened with metallic rims, and orna- 
mented iu various places by pieces of metal. An occasional rubbing with 
oil was necessary to prevent the leather from becoming dry and cracked, and 
to keep the metallic portions from rust. This was especially necessary on 
getting ready for battle, and hence to " anoint the shield " was equivalent to 
a preparation for war. 

499.— ON THE ROOFS. 

XXII, 1. What aileth thee now, that thou art wholly gone up to 
the house-tops ? 

This, as Alexander observes, (com. in loco,) is " a lively description of an 
Oriental city in commotion." The flat roofs were used not only for prom- 
enading, (see note on 2 Sam. xi, 2,) but also as places of general gathering iu 
times of excitement, just as we gather in the streets. From the roofs the 
inhabitants were accustomed to look down into the streets or afar off on the 
roads. This they could not do from the windows, as these seldom opened 
on the street. The prophet represents the entire people assembled on the 
tops of their houses. The precise object of their gathering he does not state. 
nor is it here necessary to discuss. Whether for mere curiosity, or to assail 
the invaders, or to indulge in idolatrous worship, these gatherings on the 
housetops give a striking illustration of Oriental customs. 

500.— QUIVERS— SHIELD-CASES. 
XXII, 6. Elam bare the quiver with chariots of men and horse- 
men, and Kir uncovered the shield. 

1. The quivers were commonly carried by the archers on their backs, the 
top being near the right shoulder, so that the arrows could be conveniently 
drawn. The quiver usually had two rings, one near the top and the oilier 




101. — Corinthian Tomb at Petra. 




102.— Plan of tue Tombs of the Kings, at Jerusalem. 



I,aiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 261 

near the bottom, to which was fastened a strap which the archer slipped 
over his left arm and his head. Occasionally the quiver was thrust through 
one of the cross belts or attached to the body by a girdle-strap. In chariots 
the quivers were attached to the sides of the vehicle. Quivers were prob- 
ably made of wood or of leather, and were often very highly ornamented. 
Representations of quivers may be found in cut No. 70, p. 178. 

2. Shields, when not in use, were kept in cases, or covers, probably made 
of leather, to preserve them from dust. To " uncover the shield " would be 
equivalent to a preparation for battle, and is an expression having the same 
meaning as "anoint the shield " in chapter xxi, 5. 

See also note on Hab. iii, 9. 

501.— ROCK-SEPULCHERS. 

XXII, 16. What hast thou here, and whom hast thou here, 
that thou hast hewed thee out a sepuleher here, as he that 
heweth him out a sepuleher on high, and that graveth a 
habitation for himself in a rock. 

Sepulchers in the East were often hewn out of the solid rock, sometimes 
below the level of the ground, and frequently above ground and on the sides 
of mountains. Chambers were excavated in the rock, and on either side of 
these chambers were narrow cells in which the bodies of the dead were 
placed, each in its own receptacle. Sometimes the long side of the cell was 
cut at a right angle to the passage, 80 that the body of the dead was 
inserted lengthwise ; at other times it was cut parallel to the passage, so that 
the body was inserted sidewise. In this latter mode our Lord seems to have 
been buried, since when Mary looked into the sepuleher she saw "two 
angels in white, sitting the one at the head, and the other at the feet, where 
the body of Jesus had lain." John xx, 12. Sometimes these rooms were 
without cells, and then the bodies rested on the floor. In the larger 
sepulchers were passage-ways leading to other chambers. 

Many of these ancient sepulchers are still to be seen. The rock-tombs of 
Petra are among the most celebrated. A picture of the famous " Corinthian 
Tomb " is appended. Such sepulchers are also to be found in different parts 
of Palestine, but especially in the neighborhood of Jerusalem. The rocks 
south of the valley of Hiunom are full of them, and the valley of the Kidron 
contains a large number. The most celebrated of these sepulchers are those 
known by the names of " the Tombs of the Judges," at the head of the Val- 
ley of Jehoshaphat, containing sixty niches for bodies; " the Tombs of the 
Prophets, or Apostles," on the western declivity of the Mount of Olives, in 
which thirty cells have been discovered, though doubtless more are con- 
cealed by rubbish ; and "the Tombs of the Kings," a half-mile north of the 
Damascus gate. There is no evidence that these tombs are rightly named, 
but they have all been at some time burial-places of great iniportnnce. 



262 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 

The last-named is especially rich in the ornamentation of its entrance, 
which is adorned with sculptures of fruit and flowers ; and as an account of 
its internal arrangements will convey some idea of the plan of the best style 
of these rock-tombs, we give an abstract of Dr. Barclay's description of the 
so-called "Tombs of the Kings." They are situated " on the west side of a 
sunken court, about ninety feet square and upward of twenty feet deep. 
These finely-constructed catacombs are entered through a splendid, but now 
much decayed and defaced, portico, or portal and hall, on its western side, thir- 
teen and a half feet high and twenty-eight and a half wide. Near its south- 
western corner is a door beneath the level of the floor, two and a half feet 
broad and less than three feet high, opening into an anteroom about 
nineteen feet square. In the western side of this room is a door leading 
into another room, thirteen and a half f et square, having in it about a 
dozen receptacles for the dead, and a passage leading by a stairway into a 
room ten feet by twelve, situated a story lower. There are two rooms 
entered from the south side of the anteroom or hall, each having half a 
dozen loculi; and from the north side of the westernmost one is a flight of 
steps conducting to another room in the lower story, ten feet square/' — City 
of the Great King. p. 191. 

When Maundrell visited these tombs in 1697 he found that "in every one 
of these rooms, except the first, were coffins of stone placed in niches in 
the sides of the chambers. They had been at first covered with handsome 
lids, and carved with garlands ; but now most of them were broke to pieces 
by sacrilegious hands." — Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, under date of 
March 28. None of these sarcophagi are now remaining, though there are 
still richly carved fragments strewn about the rooms and the court. Frag- 
ments of elegantly paneled stone doors also lie scattered around. One of 
these was still hanging in its place at the time of Maundrell's visit. It was 
a slab of stone six inches in thickness, and in length and breadth about the 
size of an ordinary door. It turned on two hinges or pivots of stone, which 
were let into sockets cut out of the rock. These doors were for the interior 
rooms. The outer door-way was closed by a circular stone, for account of . 
which see note on Matt, xxvii, 60. 

502.— KEYS, HOW CARRIED. 
XXII, 2SS. The key of the house of David will I lay upon his 
shoulder; so he shall open, and none shall shut; and he 
shall shut, and none shall open. 

Oriental keys being usually large, (see note on Judges iii, 25,) it is often a 
matter of convenience to carry them on the shoulder. As the possession of 
a key may be taken as evidence of property or of trust, the key became an 
emblem of wealth or authority. Eastern merchants are often seen carrying 



Isaiah.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



263 



keys on the shoulder. la the text, Shebna, the treasurer of Hezekiah, is 
warned that Eliakim shall carry "the keys of the house of David; " that is, 
that he should become treasurer in Shebna's 
place. This is a figurative way of expressing 
what is said in the twenty-first verse : " I will 
commit thy government into his hand," which 
expression is itself partly figurative, the hand 
being the emblem of power. The idea con- 
tained in both these passages is expressed in 
Isa. ix, 6, where it is said of the Messiah, 
" the government shall be upon his shoulder." 
The word keys is used figuratively to denote 
authority in Matt, xvi, 19, where Christ says 
to Peter: "I will give unto thee the keys of 
the kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever thou 
shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven : 
and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth 
shall be loosed in heaven." 

See also Rev. i, 18 ; iii, 7 ; ix, 1 ; xx, 1. 

103— Keys Carried on the 
Shoulder. 
503.— WOODEN PEGS. 
XXll, 23. I will fasten him as a nail in a sure place, and he 
shall be for a glorious throne to his father's house. 

The reference here is not to the tent-pins which are driven into the ground 
for the purpose of fastening the tent-cords, but to wooden pins or pegs 
which are put into the wall for the purpose of holding clothing and various 
household utensils. This is evident from the two following verses. When 
these pins are driven into the plastering of a house they are very insecure, 
and in a majority of instances fall out. To fasten them " in a sure place " 
they must be built into the wall as the house is built. They are then firm, 
and, being large, help to strengthen the walls and at the same time afford a 
useful support for the articles named. A beautiful reference to these 
house-pegs is made in Ezra ix, 8, where Ezra speaks of God's grace which 
had given the people " a nail in his holy place." 




504— GRAPE-GLEANING. 

XXIV, 13. As the gleaning grapes when the vintage is done. 

The Hebrews were directed not to pick their grapes closely, but to leave 
a few for the poor. See Lev. xix, 10 ; Deut. xxiv, 21. This merciful pro- 
vision is referred to by Gideon when he represents " the gleaning of the 
grapes of Ephraim " as "better than the vintage of Abi-ezer." Judg. viii, 2. 



264 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 



505.— RESERVED FOR TRIUMPH. 

XXIV, 22. They shall be gathered together, as prisoners are 
gathered, in the pit, and shall be shut up in the prison, and 
after many days shall they be visited. 

Lowth (W.) suggests that there is a reference here "to the custom of 
kings, who used to confiue the chief commanders of their enemies whom 
they take prisoners and reserve them for some extraordinary day of triumph, 
and then bring them out to public punishment." — Commentary in loco. 

506.— FILTERED WINE. 

XXV, 6. A feast of wines on the lees, of fat things full of mar- 
row, of wines on the lees well refined. 

This refers to wines that are kept long with the dregs mixed with them, 
and therefore old and strong. They are refined or filtered by being strained 
through a cloth sieve, thus separating the liquor from the lees. The wine 
in the East is said to be usually turbid, and requires straining before it is fit 
for use. 

507.— FUEL GATHERED BY WOMEN. 

XXVII, 11. "When the boughs thereof are withered, they shall 
be broken off: the women come, and set them on fire. 

In the East it is the business of women and children to gather fuel. This 
is the reason the statement is so explicitly made here that " the women " 
shall come and set them on fire. It has an odd sound to us, for the question 
naturally arises why women rather than men are mentioned; but to the 
people of Isaiah's time the expression was perfectly natural, as it is to the 
people of the East to-day. 

50§— THRESHING. 

XXVIII, 27, 28. The fitches are not threshed with a threshing 
instrument, neither is a cart wheel turned about upon the 
cummin ; but the fitches are beaten out with a staff, and the 
cummin with a rod. Bread corn is bruised ; because he will 
not ever be threshing it, nor break it with the wheel of his 
cart, nor bruise it with his horsemen. 

Four different modes of threshing are here referred to : 

1. With a rod or flail. This was for the small delicate seeds, such as 
fitches and cummin. It was also used for grain when only a small quantity 
was to be threshed, or when it was necessary to conceal the operation from 
an enemy. It was doubtless in this manner that Ruth, when she was in the 
field of Boaz. "beat out" at evening what she had gleaned during the day. 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



265 



Isaiah.] 

See Ruth ii, 17. It was probably in the same way that Gideon « threshed 
wheat by the wine-press to hide it from the Midianites." Judges vi, 11. With 
a stick he could beat out a little at a time, and conceal it in the tub of the 
wine-press from the hostile Midianites. 

2 With the charuts, "threshing instrument." This was a machine in 
some respects resembling the ordinary stone-sledge of American farmers. Pro- 
fessor Hackett describes one he saw at Beirut: "The frame was composed 
of thick pieces of plank, turned up in front like our stone-sledge, and per- 
forated with holes underneath for holding the teeth. The teeth consisted of 
pieces of sharp basaltic rock about three inches long, and hardly less firm 
than iron itself. This machine is drawn over the grain by horses or oxen, 
and serves, together with the trampling of the feet of the animals, to beat 
out the kernels and cut up the straw preparatory to winnowing."— Illustra- 
tions of Scripture, p 161. The teeth were sometimes of iron. See Amos 
i 3 The tribulum of the Romans resembled this instrument. 
' 3. Agalah. " cart-wheel," is supposed to have been the same as the morag, 
"threshing instrument," mentioned in 2 Sam. xxiv, 22; 1 Chron. xxi, 23; 
and Isa. xli, 15, though some make the morag and the charuts the same. 
This instrument is 
still known in Egypt 
by the name of mow- 
rej. It consists of 
three or four heavy 
rollers of wood, iron, 
or stone, roughly 
made and joined to- 
gether in a square 
frame, which is in the 
form of a sledge or 
drag. The rollers are said to be like the barrels of an organ with their pro- 
jections. The cylinders are parallel to each other, and are stuck full of 
spikes having sharp square points. It is used iu the same way as the 
charuts. The driver sits on the machine, and with his weight helps to keep 
it down. This instrument is probably referred to in Prov. xx, 26, where it 
is said, " A wise king scattereth the wicked and bringeth the wheel over 
them." 

(It is proper to say that authorities are not agreed as to the difference 
between the charuts, the agalah, and the morag. In the above account we 
have endeavored, as far as possible, to harmonize the conflicting opinions of 
various expositors.) 

4. The last mode of threshing referred to in the text is that of treading 
out the grain, for an explanation of which see note on Pent, xxv, 4. 




-Modern Mode of Threshing in Egypt with 
the mowrej. 



266 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 



509.— SPIRIT-VOICES. 

XXIX, 4. Thy voice shall be, as of one that hath a familiar 
spirit, out of the ground, and thy speech shall whisper out of 
the dust. 

This is probably an allusion to the notion which was common to the 
ancient heathen, as well as to the H>brews, that the souls of the dead had a 
weak, stridulous sound, entirely different from the voices of living men. The 
necromancers, who were chiefly women, spoke in a shrill, feigned voice, and 
may have practiced ventriloquism ; in which case the voice would seem to 
come from the ground, where it was popularly supposed the disembodied 
spirits were. See also Isa. viii, 19. 

510— SOWING. 

XXXII, 20. Blessed are ye that sow beside all waters, that 
send forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass. 

There are two different opinions in reference to what customs are alluded 
to in this verse. Some think reference is made to the fields which are irri- 
gated by artificial means, (see note on Psa. i, 3,) and to the practice of 
covering the seeds by plowing instead of by harrowing. The seed is sown 
in the irrigated fields, and the ox and the ass are used to draw the plow through 
the soil. Though oxen and asses were used for plowing, (see Isa. xxx, 20,) 
it was forbidden to plow with them together. See Deut. xxii, 10. 

Others suppose reference to be made to the method of planting rice. 
Chardin says: "They sow it upon the water; and before sowing it, and 
while the earth is covered with water, they cause the ground to be trodden 
by oxen, horses, and asses, who go mid-leg deep, and this is the way of 
preparing the ground for sowing." — Harrier's Observations, vol. i, p. 477. 

511.— PARCHMENT ROLLS. 
XXXIV, 4. All the host of heaven shall be dissolved, and the 
heavens shall be roiled together as a scroll. 

Parchment broks were rolled around a stick or cylinder, and, if very long, 
around two cylinders, from the two extremities. There is in the public 
library at Cambridge, England, an ancient manuscript roll of the Pentateuch. 
It is made of goats' skins dyed red, and measures forty-eight feet in length 
by about twenty-two inches in breadth. As the book of Leviticus and a 
part of Deuteronomy are wanting, it is calculated that the original length 
could not have been far from ninety feet. It consists of thirty-seven differ- 
ent skins, and contains one hundred and seventeen different columns of 
writing. These columns correspond to the pages of our books, are each 



Isaiah. ] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



267 



about four inches wide, and contain from forty to fifty lines apiece. Th T s 
manuscript is undoubtedly very ancient, though its date cannot now be 
ascertained. It was obtained by the Rev. Dr. 
Buchanan from the black Jews in Malabar. 

The celebrated Samaritan Pentateuch is the 
oldest manuscript of which we have any 
knowledge. It consists of twenty-one skins 
of unequal size, most of which contain six, 
but some only five, columns. The columns 
are thirteen inches deep and seven and a 
half wide. Each contains from seventy to 
seventy-two lines, and the entire roll has one 
hundred and ten columns. 

Ancient rolls were sometimes encased in a 
cover, which was more or less ornamented, 
and on which the title was sometimes written. 
This case corresponded to the envelopes in 
which their letters were put. See note on 
Neh. vi. 5. Some commentators think that this outside cover, with its title, 
is what is referred to in Psa. xl, 7 : "In the volume of the book it is written 
of me." Others suppose that reference is made in that text to a small strip 
of parchment which was attached to each roll, and contained the title, so 
that the nature of the contents could be ascertained without the trouble of 
unrolling. 

When the manuscript was used the reader unrolled it until he found the 
place, and when he had finished reading he rolled it up again. This is 
what is meant by opening and closing the book in Luke iv, 17, 20. 

This style of book is often referred to in the Bible. See Ezra vi, 1, 2 ; 
Jer.xxxvi, 2, 23, 29; Ezek. ii. 9; hi, 1. 2 ; Zech. v, 1, 2; 2 Tim. iv, 13, and 
probably Rev. v, 1, etc., though some commentators think that a book of 
leaves is there meant. 




Pakchmext Sceoi.l. 



512.— PRISONERS BRIDLED. 

XXXVII, 29. Because thy rage against me, and thy tumult, is 
eome up into mine ears, therefore will I put my hook in 
thy nose, and. my bridle in thy lips. 

Allusion is here made to the custom of inserting a ring in the nose of a 
refractory animal for the purpose of subduing and leading him. The meta- 
phor is a favorite one with the Arabian poets. The language used here, 
however, is not altogether metaphorical in its reference to human beings. 
In the sculptures taken from Khorsabad there are representations of prisoners 
brought before the king, each prisoner having an iron ring thrust through 



268 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Isaiah. 



his lower lip. To these rings cords are attached, which the king holds in 
his left hand, while in his right he holds a spe .r, which he thrust into the 




Men Bridled. 



eyes of the poor prisoners. See note on 2 Kings xxv, 7. 
xix, 28 : Ezek. xxix, 4 : xxxviii. 4. 



See also 2 Kings 



513.— PREPARING THE WAY OF THE KING. 
XL, 3, 4. The voice of him that crieth in the wilderness, Pre- 
pare ye the way of the Lord, make straight in the desert a 
highway for our God. Every valley shall be exalted, and 
every mountain and hill shall be made low : and the crook- 
ed shall be made straight, and the rough places plain. 

Roads of some kind must have existed in former times in Palestine, though 
nothing worthy of the name is to be found there to-day. The use of chariots, 
and the opening and preservation of the way to the Cities of Refuge, and 
such expressions as are found in this text, seem to imply a knowledge and a 
use of artificial roads. 

It has been the custom from ancient times for Oriental monarchs, when 
wishing to travel through their dominions, to send men before them to pre- 
pare their way, by removing stones, (see Isa. Ixii, 10.) leveling rough places, 
filling up hollows, and making the road pleasant and easy for the distin- 
guished travelers. Semiramis, on one of her journeys, coming to a rough, 
mountainous region, ordered the hills leveled and the hollows filled, which 
was done at an enormous cost. Her object was not only to shorten the 
way, but to leave to posterity a lasting monument of herself. There have 
been modern instances of a similar character, though not involving so much 
labor and expense. 

In Matt, iii, 3, Mark i, 3, Luke hi, 4, John i, 23, this passage is applied 
to John the Baptist, who, as a herald, (see note on 1 Cor. ix, 27.) preceded 
the Messiah to announce his coming and to have the way prepared. 



Ig-tiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 269 



514.— LAMP-WICKS. 
XLII, 3. A bruised reed shall he not break, and the smoking 
flax shall he not queneh. 

Lamp-wicks were made of lineu, and the allusiou is to a wick that is 
burning with feeble flame from absence of oil, and just ready to expire. The 
readiness with which the light of such a wick can be put out is referred to 
in Isa. xliii, 17, "They are quenched as tow; " where pishtah, "tow," is the 
same word that is rendered "flax" in the text. 

515.— A BATH BY POURING. 
XLIV, 3. I "will pour water upon him. that is thirsty, and 
floods upon the dry ground. 

Roberts thinks there is an allusion here lo one mode of bathing practiced 
by Orientals, which is to have water poured on the body by an attendant. 
The Egyptian monuments give evidence that this mode was practiced in 
Egypt. 

516.— HOW IDOLS WERE MADE. 

XLIV, 10. Who hath formed a god, or molten a graven image 
that is profitable for nothing ? 

1. The term "molten" does not necessarily mean that the image was cast 
of solid metal. Such may sometimes have been made, especially ot small size ; 
but the metallic part of idols was usually a thin plating of metal on a wooden 
image. See note on Exod. xxxii, 4. Thus the carpenter and the goldsmith 
worked together. See Isa. xl, 19, 20 ; xli, 7 ; Jer. x, 3, 4. 

2. The work of the carpenter was to take the rude log and fashion it into 
an image ready to receive the metallic plates. This is aptly described in the 
thirteenth verse of this chapter: "The carpenter stretcheth out his rule ; he 
marketh it out with a line; he fitteth it with planes, and he marketh it out 
with the compass, and maketh it after the figure of a man, according to the 
beauty of a man; that it may remain in the house." The figure was first 
marked on the log with a chalk line, and then cut and carved with the 
proper tools until it assumed the shape and size required. Denon, in his 
Travels in Egypt, (cited by Burdbr, Oriental Customs, No. 720,) speaks of au 
idol which he found "on one of the columns of the portico of Tentyra ; it 
was covered with stucco and painted. The stucco being partly scaled off, 
gave me the opportunity of discovering lines traced as if with red chalk. 
Curiosity prompted me to take away the whole of the stucco, and I found 
the form of the figure sketched, with corrections of the outline ; a division 
into twenty-two parts: the separation of the thighs being in the middle of 
the whole height of the figure, and the head comprising rather less than a 
seventh part" 

17 



270 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 

It was after some such plan, probably, that idols were made in the time of 
Isaiah. The wooden image, once made, could be worshiped as it was, or it 
could be covered with plaster or with metal. On the other hand, the 
metallic outside might not always have had an interior of wood, but may 
sometimes have been tilled with clay, as idols in India are at this day. 

51T.— EYES SEALED. 
XLIV, 18. He hath shut their eyes that they cannot see, and 
their hearts that they cannot understand. 

The margin has " daubed " instead of shut, and thus comes nearer to the 
original, tach, from tuach, which Gesenius derines " to spread over, to daub, 
to besmear, to plaster. ,; The words convey the idea of something smeared 
over the eyes to close them. Harmer suggests, as an explanation of the 
expression, a reference to a custom followed in the East Indies. The Great 
Mogul once sealed up his son's eyes for three years as a punishment, and 
at the expiration of that time removed the seal. This is given on the au- 
thority of Sir Thomas Roe's chaplain, who does not tell us, however., what 
was put upon the eyes to produce this result. Dr. Russell tells of a Jewish 
wedding in Aleppo, where the eyelids of the bride were fastened together 
with gum, and only the bridegroom was to open them. It is possible that 
in Isaiah's day there was some mode of causing temporary blindness by 
smearing the eyes, and that this is referred to in the text. 

518.— NEBO. 
XLVI, 1. Bel boweth down, Nebo stoopeth. 

Nebo was the last in order of the planetary gods of the Chaldeans, and 
was also worshiped by the Babylonians and the Assyrians, and by the 
Sabians in Arabia. He is supposed to have been of Babylonian origin. He 
corresponds to the Latin Mercury, the Greek Hermes, and the Egyptian 
Thoth. The name is supposed to be derived from nabah, to prophesy, and 
the office of this deity was that of interpreter for the gods. His symbol 
was a simple wedge or arrow-head. The same word (Tir) among the 
ancient Persians signified both " arrow-head " and the name of the planet 
nearest the sun, Mercury. The popularity of this god is seen in the com- 
bination of his name with the names of ancient kings : for example, Nebu- 
chadnezzar, Nebuzaradan, iVefruhashban, JVakmedus, iVc/fonassar, Naburlamis, 
JVa&onabus, ^a&opolassar. 

In the British Museum are statues of Nebo which were taken from Nim- 
rud. They are partially covered with cuneiform inscriptions. There is also 
in the same Museum a block of black basalt, which was found at Hillah in 
1862. It has on it an inscription of six hundred and twenty lines, divided 



Isaiah.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



271 



into ten columns. In this inscription reference is made by Nebuchadnezzar, 
its author, to the god Nebo. in which, among other things, he says : " Nebo, 
the guardian of the hosts of heaven and earth, has 
committed to me the scepter of justice to govern 
men." 

The expressions, "boweth down" and " stoopeth," 
evidently refer to the downfall of these idols, and of 
the system of idolatry of which they were the symbols. 
According to the prophecy this was to be accom- 
plished by the Persian power. It is, therefore, proper 
to remark here, that though the Persians worshiped 
the sun, the moon, the earth, etc., images of gods 'were 
entirely unknown among them. Herodotus says of 
them, " They have no images of the gods, no tem- 
ples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of 
folly." — Book i, chap. 131. Thus it was in perfect 
accordance with their own customs that the Persians 
should destroy the graven images of other nations. 
To Cyrus the Persian monarch, is assigned, in chapter 
xlv, 1, this work of destruction. So utterly helpless 
are Nebo and Bel, that they cannot deliver themselves 

from captivity, and so worthless that they are counted 

i. I j ± x. v. .7/ 10T.— Nebo. From 

only as a burden to the weary beast." gTATIJE IN Brittsii 

An account of Bel is given in the note on Jer. 1, 2. Museum. 




519.— MODE OF CARRYING IDOLS. 
XLVI, 7. They bear him upon the shoulder, they carry him, 
and. set him in his place, and. he standeth. 

It is precisely in this way that the Hindoos of the present day, according 
to Ward, carry their idols in procession and set them in the temples. There 
is an Assyrian marble which has on it, in bas-relief, a representation of a 
procession, in which four idols are carried on the shoulders of men. 



520.— ASTROLOGERS. 
XLVII, 13. Let now the astrologers, the star-gazers, the monthly 
prognostieators, stand up, and save thee from these things that 
shall come upon thee. 

Efforts to foretell future events by watching the motions of the heavenly 
bodies are very ancient. The ancient Babylonians and Chaldeans were 
especially celebrated for their attempts in this direction. See Dan. ii, 2. In 
Chaldea the astrologers formed a particular caste, in which the knowledge 
acquired was transmitted from father to son. They taught that the universe 



272 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 

was eternal, that a divine providence ruled over it, and that the movements 
of the heavenly bodies were directed according to the council of the gods 
Their long observation had made them more competent than other men to 
calculate the movements and influence of the stars. From the rising and 
setting of the planets, their orbits and color, they predicted storms, heat, 
rain, comets, eclipses, and earthquakes; and from the varied appearances of 
the heavens they foretold events that not only affected lands and nations, 
but also brought happiness or unhappiness to kings and common people. 

To assist them in making calculations from the stars the astrologers 
divided the heavens, visible and invisible, into twelve equal parts, six above 
the horizon and six below. These they called "houses," and the various 
subjects which affect the happiness of mankind, such as fortune, marriage, 
life, death, religion, etc., were distributed among them. From the position 
of the stars in these "houses " the calculations were made. The two words 
rendered " astrologers " in the text literally signify "dividers of the 
heavens." 

521.— PICTURES ON THE HANDS. 
XLIX, 16. Behold, I have graven thee upon the palms of my 
hands ; thy walls are continually before me. 

This is a figurative way of expressing that Jehovah will never forget Zion. 
The city is represented as graven on his hands, so that its walls are per- 
petually in his sight, and thus the people of God, who are figured by the 
city, are kept in everlasting remembrance. Roberts says that a similar 
form of speech is frequently used in India to express one's destiny. It is 
common to say, in reference to men or things, "They are written on the 
palms of his hands." Remembrance of an absent one is expressed by a 
figure similar to the one used in the latter part of the text : "Ah, my friend, 
you have long since forgotten me ! " ''-Forgotten you! Never ! for your walls 
are ever before me." 

Many writers, however, suppose that there is in the text something more 
than an allusion to a mere figure of speech ; that an actual custom is re- 
ferred to. It is thought that the Jews of that day were in the habit of tattoo- 
ing on their hands or arms representations of the city or temple in order to 
keep before them something to remind them of the sacred places. This is 
Bishop Lowth's view, and it is accepted by many commentators. We have 
an illustration of it in modern times. Maundrell tells us that it was custom- 
ary in his day for pilgrims to Jerusalem to have figures of various kinds 
marked on their arms as memorials of their visit. These representations 
were called "ensigns of Jerusalem." He describes the process as follows: 
"The artists who undertake the operation do it in this manner: they have 
Btamps in wood of any figure that you desire, which they first print off 



Isaiah.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



273 



upon your arm with powder and charcoal ; then taking two very fine needles 
tied close together, and dipping them often, like a pen, in certain ink, com- 
pounded, as I was informed, of gunpowder and ox-gall, they make with 
them small punctures all along the lines of the figure they have printed ; 
and then, washing the part in wine, conclude the work. These punctures 
they make with great quickness and dexterity, and with scarce any smart, 
seldom piercing so deep as to draw blood." — Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, 
under date of March 27. 

See also notes on Lev. xix, 28, and Gal. vi, 17. 

522.— MODES OF CARRYING CHILDREN. 
XLIX, 22. They shall bring thy sons in their arms, and. thy 
daughters shall be carried upon their shoulders. 

Two modes of carrying children are here alluded to, though there is no 
reason to suppose that either was exclusively for one sex. In Dent, 
xxxiii, 12, Benjamin is represented as occupying the position here assigned 
to the daughters. 

1. "In their arms" may also be rendered in their bosom, as it is in the 
margin. The large lap or pocket made by the folds of the outer garment 
(see note on Luke vi, 88) was a convenient and comfortable place for carry- 
ing a child. In Num. xi, 12, it is intimated that it was customary for fathers 
to carry their infants in this manner when going on a journey. 

2. Auother Oriental mode of carrying 
children is on the shoulders. This is 
sometimes done by placing them astride 
the neck. Thus, it is said of Beujamin, 
" he shall dwell between his shoulders." 
Deut. xxxiii, 12. At other times the 
child is placed astride one shoulder, 
usually the left, with one leg hanging 
down on the back and the other on the 
breast. In either case the child steadies 
itself by putting its arms around the 
parent's head, and by clinging with its 
feet. In Egypt women are often seen 
carrying a child on one shoulder and a jar of water on the other. 

For still another mode of carrying children see note on Isa. lx, 4. 




108. — Cabbying Childben. 



523.— DUST SHAKEN OFF. 
LII, 2. Shake thyself from the dust ; arise, and sit down, O 
Jerusalem. 

Jowett, in his Christian Researches, refers to the custom of Orientals sit- 
ting on tl>e ground with their feet drawn under them, gradually gathering 



274 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Isaiah. 



dust on their garments, and rising occasionally to shake it off, and then 
resuming their seats. This, however, is only a partial explanation of the 
allusions of the text. The "dust" referred to may be either that in which 
Jerusalem had been sitting, or that which she had put upon her head. In 
either case the idea of mourning would be represented. The mourner is ex- 
horted to arise from the dust and take a higher position ; not to sit down 
again in the dust. The language seems to embrace the idea of a throne, 
a high seat. Alexander agrees with some of the best expositors who adopt 
the interpretation of the Targum, Sit upon thy throne. From this Jerusalem 
is supposed to have been previously cast down. The ground was to be 
left, the dust shaken off, and the throne occupied. The mourning was to be 
changed for rejoicing. 



524.— PREPARING FOR WAR. 
LII, 10. The Lord, hath made bare his holy arm in the eyes of 
all the nations. 

To " make bare the arm " is a metaphorical expression denoting preparation 

for active work, especially for 
war. The beauty of the figure 
is seen, not only in the fact 
that the arm is an appropriate 
emblem of power, but also in 
the additional fact that the 
Oriental costume permits the 
arm to be bared in an instant. 
Jowett says : " The loose 
sleeve of the Arab shirt, as 
well as of the outer garment, 
leaves the arm so completely 
free, that in an instant the 
left hand, passing up the right 
arm, makes it bare ; and tins 
is done when a person, a sol- 
dier, for example, about to 
strike with his sword, intends 
to give the arm full play." — 
Christian Researches, etc., p. 
208. 

Reference is also made to 

this baring of the arm in Tsa. 

lso in Ezek. iv, 7. Classic writers likewise make frequent allu- 




109. — The Arm made Bare 



liii, 1, and 
sion to it. 



Isaiah. J 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



275 



525.— SPRINKLING. 

LII, 15. So shall he sprinkle many nations. 

Most commentators suppose the figure of sprinkling to be taken from 
the ceremonial sprinklings of the Mosaic law. It was custom- 
ary to sprinkle blood in connection with different sacrifices. 
See notes on Exod. xxiii, 15 ; Lev. vi, 9 ; vi, 25 ; vii, 1 ; vii, 11 ; 
xvi, 34. In allusion to this custom the prophet, in the text, 
represents the Messiah as making atonement for the nations. 

Some writers think there is an allusion to the custom of sprink- 
ling guests at feasts with perfumed waters from a silver vessel 
of vase-like shape and with a perforated top, through which the 
fluid is thrown on the faces of the guests. This sprinkling is 
sometimes so copious as to cause embarrassment. Bruce, after 
describing an interview he once had with a certain dignitary, 
says : " Our coffee being done, I rose to take my leave, and 
was presently wet to the skin by deluges of orange-flower 
water." Niebuhr relates a similar instance : : ' The first lime 
we were received witli all the Eastern ceremonies, (it was at 
Rosetto. at a Greek merchant's house,) there was one of our 
company who was excessively surprised wlum a domestic 
placed himself before him and threw water over him, as well 

1 ] |Q PEKFir.MK 

ou his face as over his clothes." See Taylor's Calmet: Frag- spkin-kucii. 
merit*. No. XIV. 

Tie engraving represents a perfume-sprinkler of beautiful form, such as 
is used in some parts of India. 

526.— INVITATION TO BUY. 
LY, 1. Ho, every one that thirsteth, come ye to the waters, 
and. he that hath no money ; come ye, buy, and. eat ; yea, 
come, buy wine and milk without money and without price. 

A beautiful illustration of the customary mode of addressing purchasers 
in the East is given by Miss Rogers, who thus describes her walk through 
one of the streets of Jerusalem: "The .shopkeepers were crying to the 
passers-by, 'Ho, every one that hath money, let him come and buy! Ho, 
such a one, come and buy! ' But some of them seemed to be more dis- 
interested, and one of the fruiterers, offering me preserves and fruit, said, 
' lady, take of our fruit without money and without price ; it is yours, 
take all that you will,' and he would gladly have laden our kawas with the 
good things of his store and then have claimed double their value." — Do- 
mestic Life in Palestine, p. 49. There is more sincerity in the Gospel invita- 
tations than in those of the traders 




276 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Isaiah. 



527.— STONE-WORSHIP. 

LVII, 6. Among the smooth stones of the stream is thy por- 
tion ; they, they are thy lot : even to them hast thou, poured 
a drink-offering, thou, hast offered a meat-offering. 

The worship of stone pillars is a practice of very great antiquity, and one 
to which many nations were formerly devoted. Some have strangely con- 
founded the anointing of the stone at Bethel by Jacob with this super- 
stitious practice ; but we think the patriarch can be freed from the charge 
of idolatry on that occasion. See note on Gen. xxviii, 18. The worshp of 
stones is referred to in Deut. vii, 5; xii, 3, and in many passages where the 
word " images " is used. It is very probable also that the allusion to the 
" rock " of the heathen in Deut. xxxii, 31, 31, is a reference to the same 
species of idolatry. " The image which fell down from Jupiter," and which 
was worshiped by the Ephesians, may furnish another illustration. See 
note on Acts xix, 35. 

The old custom was to anoint the stones which were worshiped, and to 
present offerings to them. Clemens Alexandrinus speaks of a superstitious 
man as "a worshiper of every shining stone." Arnobius, who lived in the 
fifth century, said, after his conversion to Christianity, that when he was a 
heathen he never saw an oiled stone without addressing it and praying to it. 

There are many monuments of this ancient idolatry still in existence ; they 
are especially abundant on the western extremity of Europe, in Cornwall, and 
in the islands and promontories from the Land's End to Caithness and the 
Orkneys. In fact, evidences of this worship have come down to such recent 
times that it may well be doubted whether this species of idolatry has even 
yet ceased to exist in Europe. In the latter part of the seventeenth century 
it was practiced in Lapland, one of the deities of Scandinavian mythology 
being represented by a stone. In the early part of the following century 
there were pillar-stones held in great veneration among the inhabitants of the 
Western Islands of Scotland. One of these stones was swathed in flannel. 
Another, about eight feet high and two broad, was called ''the bowing stone/' 
because the people bowed before it in reverence and said the Lord's prayer. 
"Within twenty years of the present time the same superstition has been 
known to exist in Ireland, and very probably is to be found there still. The 
Earl of Roden, in his Progress of the Reformation in Ireland, states that in the 
Island of Inniskea, off the coast of Mayo, the people worship a stone which 
is wrapped in flannel. Its power is believed to be immense. The people 
pray to it in time of sickness, and invoke it to raise a storm and send some 
hapless vessel a wreck on their barren coast that they may profit by the 
disaster I See an article in Notes and Queries for February 7, 1852, from the 
p^n of Sir J. Emerson Tennent. 



Isaiah.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



528.— THE ARM AN EMBLEM OF POWER. 

LIX, 1. Behold, the Lord's hand is not shortened, that it can- 
not save. 

As the arm is an emblem of power, so shortness of arm signifies dimin- 
ished power, and length of arm an increase. Thus it is said that Artax- 
erxes Longimanus, that is, the Long- 
handed, was so called, not because of 
any peculiarity of body, but because of 
the vast extent of his power. There is 
an ancient Egyptian sculpture in which 
the same bold figure is employed as the 
one used by the prophet in the text. 
It represents Thannyras, the son of 
Inarus, whom Artaxerxes had made 
Satrap of Egypt, worshiping the sun as 
his god. In this he disregarded the re- 
ligion of his own people, and adopted 
that of their conquerors. The sun is 
represented as sending his rays down 
on the earth, and at the end of every 

rav is a hand. 

' „ ill. — Egyptian' Satrap 

See also Num. xi, 23, and Isa. 1, 2. TII ., SuN 




WoKSIIIPIXtt 



529.— MODE OF CARRYING CHILDREN. 
LX, 4. Thy sons shall eome from far, and thy daughters 
shall be nursed at thy side. 

In the East, children are not only carried on the bosom and on the 
shoulders, (see note on Isa. xlix, 22,) but also on the hip, and reference is 
thought to be made to this custom in this text and in Isa. lxvi, 12. Chardin 
saw the mothers carrying their nursing children astride upon the hip 
with the arm around the body. Other travelers have noticed the same 
custom. 

53©.— PIGEON HOUSES. 
LX, 8. Who are these that fly as a eloud, and as the doves to 
their windows. 

Doves have always been favorite birds in the East. In Egypt, Syria, and 
Persia there are cotes built for their special accommodation. In the text the 
prophet represents the success of Christianity by the countless Gentiles who 
will seek admission into the Church. So numerous will these Gentiles be 
that they will appear like a cloud, just as the doves appear when they fly to 
the entrances to their habitations. The figure is very animated and beautiful. 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Isaiah. 



Some of the dove houses are quite peculiar in their construction. Shaw 
represents them as a prominent feature in Egyptian villages. They are 
round, tall, and narrow, six or eight being grouped together. See Travels, 
plate facing p. 291. 

Morier gives an interesting account of the pigeon houses of Persia, 
which are erected at intervals in the open country for the purpose of collect- 
ing the dung for manure. " They are large round towers, rather broader at 
the bottom than the top, and crowned by conical spiracles through which 

the pigeons descend. 
Their interior resem- 
bles a honeycomb 
pierced with a thou- 
sand holes, each of 
which forms a snug 
retreat for a nest. 
More care appears to 
have been bestowed 
upon the outside than 
upon that of the gen- 
erality of the dwelling- 
houses, for they are 
painted and ornament- 
ed. The extraordina- 
ry flights of pigeons 
which I have seen alight upon one of these brildings afford perhaps a good 
illiH'r; tion for the passage in Isa. lx, 8. . . . Their great numbers and tie 
compactness of their mass literally look like a cloud at a distance, and ob- 
scure the sun in their passage." — Second Journey, etc., p. 140. 




Pigeox Towers in Persia. 



531.— THE OPEN GATES. 
LX, 11. Therefore thy gates shall be open continually ; they 
shall not be shut day nor night. 

The gates of walled towns are shut at sundown, or shortly after. Trav- 
elers often hasten in their journey when they see the sun declining and the 
shadows lengthen, lest the day expire before they reach the city gates. It 
not uncommonly happens that, with all their exertions, they are too late ; 
they are then compelled to spend the night outside, exposed to storms and 
robbers. The prophet represents the Church of Christ with her gates "open 
continually," in marked contrast to the custom with which Oriental people 
are familiar. A similar illustration is given by John in his beautiful 
description of the New Jerusalem : " And the gates of it shall not be shut 
at all by day: for there shall be no night there." Rev. xxi, 25. 



Isaiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 279 



532.— A DIADEM FOR ASHES. 
LXI, 8. To appoint unto them that mourn in Zion, to give 
unto them beauty for ashes, the oil of joy for mourning, the 
garment of praise for the spirit of heaviness. 

Peer, " beauty," is the same word that is rendered "bonnet " in Isa. iii, 20, 
where see the note. The prophet wishes to show the contrast between the 
time of mourning and that of rejoicing. The mourner sits with ashes on the 
head. See note on 2 Sam. xv, 32. When the mourning ceases and the joy- 
comes the ashes are taken from the head, and, in the true spirit of rejoicing, 
a beautiful diadem is placed thereon instead. 

533.— WEDDING JEWELRY. 
LXI, 10. As a bridegroom deeketh himself with ornaments, 
and as a bride adorneth herself with her jewels. 

At Oriental weddings both bride and bridegroom are adorned with a 
profusion of jewelry of every kind. If too poor to purchase they borrow 
from neighbors and friends, that a splendid show may be made. See also 
Rev. xxi, 2. 

534.— REPETITION. 

LXII, 10. Go through, go through the gates ; prepare ye the 
way of the people ; east up, east up the highway. 

We have here an illustration of the Oriental style of repetition in language, 
of which there are several other instances in this book. Thus, in chapter 
xxiv, 19, 20, we read in our version, "The earth is utterly broken down, the 
earth is clean dissolved, the earth is moved exceedingly. The earth shall 
reel to and fro like a drunkard." This is more literally rendered by Alexan- 
der, " Broken, broken is the earth ; shattered, shattered is the earth ; shaken, 
shaken is the earth. The earth reels, reels like a drunken man." So also 
in chapter xxvi, 3, we have, "Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace." The 
margin gives the literal translation, " Peace, peace." See also Jer. xxii, 29 ; 
Ezek. xxi, 27. 

This is not exclusively a Hebrew idiom. Chardin quotes from a Persian 
letter the words, "To whom I wish that all the world may pay homage," 
and says that the language is literally, " that all souls may serve his name, 
his name." 

535.— IDOLATROUS FEASTS. 
LXV, 11. But ye are they that forsake the Lord, that forget 
my holy mountain, that prepare a table for that troop, and 
that furnish the drink-offering unto that number. 

For "troop " and " that number " the margin substitutes the original words 
gad and meni. The precise meaning of these two terms is a matter of 



280 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. I.aiah. 

diversified opinion. G-esenius defines gad to be the g d Fortune, the same 
as Baal or Bel, that is, the planet Jupiter, which was regarded throughout the 
East as the giver of good fortune. There was a city called Baal-Gad in the 
valley of Lebanon under Mount Hermon. Gesenius gives to meni the defi- 
ration of fate, fortune, destiny, and thinks the planet Yenus was intended. 
Venus was identical with Astarte, and was regarded by the ancient Semitic 
nations as the source of good fortune, and as such was coupled with the 
planet Jupiter; Jupiter being the "Greater Good Fortune," and Venus the 
"Lesser Good Fortune." Fuerstis undecided whether gad refers to Jupiter 
or Venus ; he supposes meni to refer to the moon, and that both were deities 
who were supposed to control fate. 

Many interpreters have refused to render the two words as names of 
idols, and have "referred the whole clause either to convivial assemblies, 
perhaps connected with idolatrous worship, or to the troop of planets and 
the multitude of stars, as objects of such worship." — Alexander, Commen- 
tary in loco. 

AIL however, are agreed on one point, that the whole passage has refer- 
ence to idolatrous worship of some sort; the "table" and the " drink-offer- 
ing " give evidence of that. The kind of offering referred to is supposed to 
be identical with the lectisternia of the Romans. These were feasts spread 
for the consumption of the gods on occasions of extraordinary solemnities. 
Images of the gods reclined on couches, while before them were placed 
tables filled with viands, as if the gods were really partaking of the things 
offered in sacrifice. The custom is thought to have been of Egyptian origin, 
and from the Egyptians the Hebrews probably learned it. Jerome states 
that in every city in Egypt, and especially in Alexandria, they were in the 
habit, on the last day of each year, of covering a table with dishes of various 
kinds, and with a cup filled with a liquor made of water, wine, and honey, 
either in acknowledgement of the fertility of the past year, or to implore 
fruitfulness for the year to come. 

See also notes on Num. xxii, 41, and 1 Kings xi, 5. 



JEREMIAH. 

536.— CISTERNS. 

II, 13. They have forsaken me the fountain of living waters, 
and hewed them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no 
water. 

The dryness of the summer months in Palestine, and the absence of large 
rivers, together with the scarcity of springs in many places, make it neces- 



Jeremiah.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



281 



sary to collect into cisterns the rains which fall, and the waters which fill 
the small streams in the rainy season. This has been the custom in that 
land from very early times. These cisterns are either dug in the earth or 
cut out of the soft limestone rock, and are of several kinds. Sometimes a 
shaft is sunk like a well, and the bottom widened into the shape of a jug. 
Excavations of this sort combine the characters of cisterns and wells, since 
they not only receive the rain which is conducted into them, but the water 
which percolates through the limestone. Another kind consists of chambers 
excavated out of the rock, with a hole in the roof. Again, an excavation is 
made perpendicularly, and the roof arched with masonry. Some are lined 
with wood or cement, while others are left in their natural state. 

They are sometimes entirely open at the top, and are then entered by 
steps, or, in the case of large ones, (and some are very large,) by flights of 
stairs. Where they are roofed, a circular opening with a curb is at the top, 
and a wheel, with a rope and bucket, is provided. This is referred to in 
Eccl. xii, 6, "The wheel broken at the cistern." Jerusalem is abundantly 
supplied witli water by means of cisterns, and during all its long and terrible 
sieges has never suffered for want of a supply. 

It is to these different kinds of receptacles for water that the prophet refers 
in the text. Though with proper care the water may be kept sweet for a 
time, it is often in a filthy condition, not to be compared to the pure water 
from living fountains, and at any time the cisterns are liable to become 
"broken," and to leak. See also 2 Kings xviii. 31 ; Isa. xxxvi, 16. 



537 .—HANDS ON THE HEAD. 

II, 37. Thou shalt go forth from him, and thine hands upon 
thine head. 

This is an Oriental mode of expressing great grief, and is thought by some 
to s'guify that the heavy hand of God's 
affliction is resting on the mourner. 
This was one of the tokens of mourn- 
ing adopted by Tamar after the cruel 
maltreatment she received from Atnnon. 
See 2 Sam. xiii, 19. There is in the 
British Museum a sculptured slab re- 
presenting Egyptian mourners at a 
funeral, with their hands on their heads. 
According to Roberts, this is a common 
mode of expressing grief in India. 
"When people are in great distress 
they put their hands on their head, the 
fingers being clasped on the top of the lis.— Hands on the Head. 




282 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Jeremiah. 



crown. Should a man who is plunged into wretchedness meet a friend, he 
immediately puts his hands on his head to illustrate his circumstances. 
When a person hears of the death of a relation or friend he forthwith 
clasps his hands and places them on his head. "When boys have been pun- 
ished at school, they run home with their hands on the same place." — 
Oriental Illustrations, p. 461. 
See also note on 2 Sam. xv, 32. 

53§.— BELLOWS. 
VI, 29. The bellows are burned, the lead is consumed of the 
fire. 

The use of the bellows in Hie East is confined now, as it was in ancient 

limes, to the workers in metals, or- 
dinary fires being regulated by fans. 
The ancient rellows consisted of a 
leathern bag in a wooden frame, 
with a long mouthpiece of reed 
tipped with metal to preserve it 
from the action of the fire. The 
operator stood with a bellows under 
each foot. In each hand, attached 
to the instrument under foot, was 
a string, by which he lifted the 
bag of skin when it became exhausted of air by the pressure of the foot. 




114.— Egyptian Bellows. 



539.— MIRTH AT MARRIAGES. 

VII, 34. Then will I cause to cease from the eities of Judah, 

and from the streets of Jerusalem, the voice of mirth, and the 

voice of gladness, the voice of the bridegroom, and the voice 

of the bride. 

Marriages in the East are celebrated by processions of friends, who throng 
the streets and give noisy demonstrations of their joy. Singers and musi- 
cians accompany them, and the shouts and music are heard afar off. Miss 
Rogers gives a lively account of a wedding party she once met not far from 
Mount Carmel. "Pleasant sounds of voices, songs, bells, and laughter 
reached us, and we saw an animated little party approaching, mounted on 
camels, whose nodding heads and necks were decorated with beads, shells, 
crimson tassels, and strings of little tinkling bells." — Domestic Life m Pales- 
tine, p. 94. 

Among the Mohammedans no marriages are allowed during the month of 
Ramadan, which is their solemn annual fast. The troubles to come upon 
Judah are represented in the text by the prediction of utter silence in the 
streets. See also Jer. xvi, 9; xxv, 10; xxxiii, 11 ; Rev. xviii. 23. 



Jeremiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 283 



540.— LODGINGS. 
IX, 2. O that I had in the wilderness a lodging-place of way- 
faring men ; that I might leave my people, and go from 
them ! 

The prophet probably refers to those temporary lodging-places for trav- 
elers in the open country which private charity or municipal law sometimes 
provides in the East ; or he may refer to the temporary hospitality which is 
considered in the East as a religious duty to be extended toward strangers. 
See note on Job xxxi, 1 7, and see Jer. xiv, 8. His idea is that the wilder- 
ness is better than the place where his people live, and the hospitality of 
strangers preferable to the society of his wicked friends. Roberts thinks 
there may here be reference to a custom he has noticed in India. When a 
man becomes angry with his family it is not uncommon for him to threaten 
to leave them and dwell in the wilderness. This threat is not always empty 
sound ; for there are many in every town and village who thus leave their 
families and are absent for months or years, and some never return. The 
wilderness has many ascetics, who, from this and other causes, live retired 
from the haunts of men. 

541.— MOURNING WOMEN. 
IX, 17, 18. Thus saith the Lord of hosts, Consider ye, and call 
for the mourning women, that they may come : and send for 
cunning women, that they may come ; and let them make 
haste, and take up a wailing for us, that our eyes may run 
down with tears, and our eyelids gush out with waters. 

Not only are great lamentations made by the bereaved for their loved ones, 
but professed mourners, usually women, are hired for the purpose. They 
assemble in greater or less number, according to the ability whicli those 
who hire them have to pay for their services. Their hair is disheveled, 
their clothes torn, and their countenances daubed with paint and dirt. They 
sing in a sort of chorus, mingled with shrill screams and loud wailing, dis- 
torting their limbs frightfully, swaying their bodies to and fro, and moving 
in a kind of melancholy dance to the thrumming music of tambourines. They 
recount the virtues of the deceased, calling him by names of tenderest 
endearment, and plaintively inquiring of him why he left his family and 
friends ! With wonderful ingenuity these hired mourners seek to make a 
genuine lamentation among the visitors who have come to the funeral, by 
alluding to any among them who have suffered bereavement, dwelling on 
its character and circumstances, and thus eliciting from the sorrowing ones 
cries of real grief. 

Miss Rogers gives a thrilling account of a formal mourning which lasted 
for a week, and at which she was present for several hours. Three rows of 



284: BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Jeremian. 

women on the one side of the room faced three rows on the other side. 
They clapped their hands and struck their breasts in time to the monotonous 
melody they murmured. One side, led by a celebrated professional mourner, 
sang the praises of the dead man, while the other responded in chorus. 
After the singing they shrieked and made a rattling noise in their throats, 
while the widow kneeled, swayed her body backward and forward, and 
feebly joined in the wild cry. 

"A minstrel woman began slowly beating a tambourine, and all the com- 
pany clapped their hands in measure with it, singing, 'Alas for him! Alas 
for him 1 He was brave, he was good ; alas for him ! ' Then three women 
rose, with naked swords in their hands, and stood at two or three yards 
distance from each other. They began dancing with slow and graceful 
movements, with their swords at first held low and their heads drooping. 
Each dancer kept within a circle of about a yard in diameter. By degrees 
the tambourine and the clapping of the hands and the songs grew louder, 
the steps of the dancers were quickened. They threw back their heads and 
gazed upward passionately, as if they would look into the very heavens. 
The}' flourished their uplifted swords, and as their movements became more 
wild and excited, the bright steel flashed, and bright eyes seemed to grow 
brighter. As one by one the dancers sank, overcome with fatigue, others 
rose to replace them. Thus passed seven days and nights. Professional 
mourners were in constant attendance to keep up the excitement, and dances 
and dirges succeeded each other, with intervals of wild and hysterical weep- 
ing and shrieking." — Domestic Life in Palestine, pp. 181, 182. 

Shaw says that the hired mourners at Moorish funerals cry out in a deep 
and hollow voice, several times together, Loo ! loo ! loo I ending each period 
with " some ventriloquous sighs." See Travels, etc., p. 242. 

To this singular custom of hiring mourners the prophet refers in the 
text, and also in the twentieth verse. These hired mourners were present 
at the burial of the good king Josiah. 2 Chron. xxxv, 25. Solomon refers 
to them in Eccl. xii, 5 : " The mourners go about the streets." Amos speaks 
of "such as are skillful of lamentation." Amos v, 16. Hired mourners were 
present with their instruments of funeral music at the house of Jairus after 
the death of his daughter. See Matt, ix, 23 ; Mark v, 38. 

See also note on 2 Sam. xix, 4. 

542— ADZE. 
X, 3. For one eutteth a tree out of the forest, the work of the 
hands of the workman, with the axe. 

Madtsad, " ax," is thought to have been a light kind of hewing instru- 
ment, similar to an adze, used for fashioning or carving wood into shape. It 
is rendered "tongs" in Isa. xliv. 12. 



Jeremiah,] 



BIBLE MAX NEKS AND CUSTOMS. 



285 



543.— WRITING ON THE GROUND. 
XVII, 13. All that forsake thee shall be ashamed, and they 
that depart from me shall be written in the earth. 

Some commentators suppose a reference is here made to names written 
on earth in opposition to names written in heaven; others think the refer- 
ence is to words written in the dust in contrast to words engraven in the 
rock. As the former are easily obliterated and forgotten, so will be the fate 
of those who depart from the Lord. 

We have no direct evidence that writing in the dust was actually practiced 
in the days of Jeremiah. The figure used in the text might readily suggest 
itself aside from any custom. It may not be inappropriate, however, to 
observe that this mode of writing has been practiced in some schools in the 
East. Harmer says that Peter della Valle noticed a simple way of " writing 
short-lived memorandums in India, where he beheld children writing their 
lessons with their fingers on the ground, the pavemeut being for that pur- 
pose strewed all over with, very fine sand. "When the pavement was full 
they put the writings out; and, if need were, strewed new sand from a 
little heap they had before them wherewith to write farther." — Observations, 
vol. iii, p. 128, note. 

The text brings to mind what is said of Jesus when the adulterous 
woman was brought into his presence in the temple. He " stooped down, 
and with his ringer wrote on the ground." John viii, 6, 8-. 



544.— THE POTTER. 
XVIII, 3. Then T went down to the potter's house, and, behold, 
he wrought a work on the wheels. 

The potter's art has been practiced from 
very ancient times. The Egyptian monu- 
ments give evidence that it was known in 
Egypt before the entrance of the Hebrews 
into that country. Some expositors have 
inferred from Psa, lxxxi, 6, that the Israel- 
ites, when in bondage, were employed in 
pottery as well as in brickmaking : "I re- 
moved his shoulder from the burden ; his 
hands were delivered from the pots." 
Others, however, give to the word dud the 
meaning of "basket," and make it refer to 
the baskets which were used by the brick- 
makers for carrying fclay. 

18 




115.— Egyptian- Potters. 



286 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Jeremiah. 

The clay was first trodden with the feet by the potter, (Isa. xli, 25,) and 
when it became of the proper consistency it was put on the " wheels." 
These were originally of stone, and two in number, one above the other, like 
a pair of millstones ; the lower one immovable, and the upper revolving on 
an axis and turned by the potter by means of a treadle, and sometimes by 
the hands of an attendant. In after times the wheels were made of wood. 
The softened clay was put upon the upper wheel, and fashioned by the 
potter's hand to any shape desired. 

545.— EARTHEN BOTTLES. 

XIX, 1. Thus saith trie Lord, Go and. get a potter's earthen 
bottle. 

It is evident from this and other passages that it is a mistake to suppose 
that all Eastern bottles were made of skin. Ancient bottles of earthenware 
of various shapes are to be found in the museums, and are often depicted on 
the monuments. In 1 Kings xiv, 3, bakouk, here rendered bottle, is spoken 
of as a "cruse " in which honey was kept. 

546.— BOTTLES BROKEN. 

XIX, 10. Then shalt thou break the bottle in the sight of the 
men that go with thee. 

This action, so symbolical of utter destruction, is still used in the East to 
denote the same thing. Dr. Thomson says, "The people of this country 
have the same custom of breaking a jar when they wish to express their 
utmost detestation of any one. They come behind or near him and smash 
the jar to atoms, thus imprecating upon him and his a like hopeless ruin." — 
The Land and the Book, vol. ii, p. 497. 

547.— TIDINGS OF A NEW-BORN SON. 

XX, 1&. Cursed be the man who brought tidings to my father, 
saying, A man-child is born unto thee ; making him very 
glad. 

The birth of a son is, in the East, considered a cause of special congratula- 
tion to the father. Its announcement makes him "very glad." In Persia 
it is associated with particular ceremonies. Morier says, " Some confidential 
servant about the harem is usually the first to get the information, when he 
runs in great haste to his master, and says, ' Mujdeh,'' or ' Good news,' by 
whrch he secures to himself a gift, which generally follows the Mujdeh. 
Among the Common people, the man who brings the Mujdeh frequently 
seizes on the cap or shawl, or any such article belonging to the father, as a 
security for the present, to which he holds himself entitled." — Second Jour- 
ney, etc.. p. 103. 



Jeramiah.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



287 



548.— CEILINGS. 
XXII, 14. That saith, I will build me a wide house and large 
chambers, and eutteth him out windows ; and it is ceiled 
with cedar, and painted with vermilion. 

The interiors of Oriental houses of the better class are often of a splendid 
character. The ceiliugs, panels, 
and doors are richly painted and 
gilded. Special pains are taken 
to ornament the ceilings. Taste- 
ful interlaced patterns are used, 
often painted in brilliant colors ; 
red, blue, gold, and green, being 
the favorites. 

The prophet represents here 
the general luxuriance of the 
people, and the dishonesty which 
sometimes accompanied it. See 
verse 13. In another prophecy 
we read: " Is it time for you, 
ye, to dwell in your ceiled houses, 
and this house lie waste ? " Hag- 
gai i, 4. 116.— Ceilihg of Palace at KoNran. 




549.— SMITING THE THIGH. 
XXXI, 19. Surely after that I was turned, I repented ; and 
after that I was instructed, I smote upon my thigh. 

This was one method by which the Jews expressed deep sorrow in time 
of mourning. Ezekiel was commanded to act in a similar manner as a sig- 
nificant mode of expressing the sorrow that was to come on rebellious 
Israel. See Ezek. xxi, 12. The Greeks and Persians had a similar custom, 
and it is practiced in some parts of the East at the present day. 



550.— EVIDENCES OF PURCHASE. 

XXXII, 14. Take these evidences, this evidence of the purchase, 

both which is sealed, and this evidence -which is open; 

and put them in an earthen vessel, that they may continue 

many days. 

It is supposed that one of these documents was a duplicate of the other; 
and it may have been customary to carefully seal one copy and deposit it in 
a safe place, perhaps to bury it on a part of the land described in it, while 
the other was left uusealed in some public place designated for the purpose, 



288 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Jeremiah. 

where all persons interested might have access to it whenever they desired. 
Inasmuch, however, as the city was to be destroyed, the prophet was 
directed to have both copies put into an earthen vessel for preservation. 

In Taylor's Calmet it is suggested that the earthen vessel containing these 
documents was to be buried in one corner of the land purchased, as a sort 
of hidden landmark of the property ; and as a possible illustration the fol- 
lowing passage is cited from the Gen too laws of boundaries and limits : 
"Dust, or bonds, or seboos, (bran,) or cinders, or scraps of earthenware, or 
the hairs of a cow's tail, or the s-eed of the cotton-plant: all these things 
above-mentioned, being put into an earthen jar filled to the brim, a man 
must privately bury upon the confines of his own boundary ; and there 
preserve stones also, or bricks, or sea-sand: either of these three things 
may be buried by way of Landmark of the limits; for all these things, upon 
remaining a long time in the ground, are not liable to rot, or to become 
putrid; any other thing, also, which will remain a long time in the ground 
without becoming rotten or putrid, may be buried for the same purpose. 
Those persons who. by any of these methods, can show the line of their 
boundaries, shall acquaint their sons with the respective Landmarks of 
those boundaries ; and, in the same manner, those sons shall explain the 
signs of the limits to their children." — Fragments, No. LXXX. Taylor's 
Calmeiy vol. hi, p. 138. 

551.— CUTTING THE COVENANT. 
XXXIV, 18. When they cut the calf in twain, and. passed, be- 
tween the parts thereof. 

This was a very ancient method of making a covenant. The two con- 
tracting parties slaughtered a victim, cut the body in two, and passed 
between the severed parts. Some writers hold that the design was to ex- 
press a wish that, if the covenant should be broken, the same fate might 
befall the party violating it which had befallen the slain beast. Others 
think that it was intended to represent, that as the two divided parts 
belonged to one animal, so the two parties making the covenant were 
of one mind so far as the subject of the covenant was concerned. It is 
thought probable that the latter was the original design of the custom, and 
that the former notion was added to the meaning subsequently, or substi- 
tuted for it when the original intention was forgotten. This old custom is 
referred to in the very expression which was used by the Hebrews to 
represent the "making of a covenant. The phrase " make a covenant," 
which is so often used in the Old Testament, is literally, " to cut a covenant," 
(karath berith.) 

This ceremony was used when Jehovah made a covenant with Abram. 
See Gen. xv, 10, 17. ;( Ephraem Syrns observes, that God condescended to 



Jeriinia 1 !.] BIBLE MAXXEKS AND CUSTOM.-. 289 

follow the custom of the Chaldeans, that he mis*ht in the most solemn man- 
lier confirm his oath to Abram the Chaldean."— Kbil and Delitzsch, Com- 
mentary in loco. The custom was widespread among ancient nations, and is 
often referred to by classical writers. There are traces of it even in modern 
times. Pitts, after narrating some of the superstitious customs of the 
Algerine pirate's when a storm overtakes them at sea, continues: "If they 
find no succor from their before-mentioned rites and superstitions, but that 
the danger rather increases, then tbey go to sacrificing of a sheep, (or two 
or three upon occasion, as they think needful,) which is done after this man- 
ner: having cut off the head with a knife, they immediately take out the 
entrails, and throw them and the head overboard ; and then with all the 
speed they can (without skinning) they cut the body into two parts by the 
middle, and throw one part over the right side of the ship and the other 
over the left, into the sea, as a kind of propitiation. " — Religion and Manners 
of the Mahometans, chap. ii. 

552.— INK. 

XXXVI, 18. He pronounced all these words unto me with his 
mouth, and I wrote them with ink in the book. 

1. The ink of the ancients was usually composed of lampblack, soot, or 
pulverized charcoal, prepared with gum and water. Tt was sold in small par- 
ticles or grains. When needed for use some of the grains were put into the 
inkhorn, (see note on Ezek. ix, 2,) and mixed with water until the mixture 
became of the consistence of our modern printer's ink. It was of an intense 
glossy black, retaining its color for ages, yet easily obliterated with sponge 
and water. This is thought to be referred to in Num. v, 23, and Col. ii, 14. 
The ink still used in the East is mostly of this character. 

Ink is also mentioned in 2 Cor. iii, 3 ; 2 John 12, and 3 John 13. 

2. Eor a description of books, see note on Job xix, 23, 24. 

553.— THE HEARTH. 
XXXYI, 22. The king sat in the winter house in the ninth 
month, and there was a fire on the hearth burning before 
him. 

Ach, "hearth," is a portable furnace or stove. The rooms of Oriental 
houses are sometimes warmed at the present day by means of such pots or 
furnaces. "They have the form of a large pitcher, and are placed in a 
cavity sunk in the middle of the apartment. When the fire has burnt down, 
a frame like a table is placed over the pot, and the whole is then covered 
with a carpet; and those who wish to warm themselves sit upon the floor 
and thrust their feet and legs, and even the lower part of their bodies, under 
the carpet." — Robinson's Gesenius. 



290 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Jeremiah. 



554.— BURIED TREASURES. 
XLI, 8. We have treasures in the field, of wheat, and. of 
barley, and. of oil, and of honey. 

1. It is a very ancient custom in many parts of the East to store grain in 
large pits or cisterns, dug in the ground for the purpose. In Syria these 
cisterns are sealed at the top with plaster, and covered with a deep bed of 
earth to keep out vermin. They are cool and dry and tight. Among the 
Moors the custom is to have a thick layer of straw on the bottom and a 
lining of straw on the sides. They cover the mouth with a stone, and some- 
times build over it a small pyramid of earth to shed the rain. Yery often, 
however, after closing the mouth, they cover the place with sod so skillfully 
that none but the initiated can tell where the pit is. Shaw says that in 
Barbary there are sometimes two or three hundred of these grain-pits to- 
gether, the smallest of them holding four hundred bushels. 

Burder {Oriental Literature, No. 621) gives a quotation from Chenier, a 
Trench traveler, who says that among the Moors the fathers of wealthy 
families fill a granary of this kind at the birth of every child, and empty it 
when the child becomes an adult and is married. He knew of corn which 
had been kept in such pits for twenty-five years and was still fit for use, 
though it had lost its whiteness. 

These are doubtles ' he kind of places referred to in the text, where the 
treasures of wheat were kept. David also had "storehouses in the field." 
1 Chron. xxvii, 25. Besides these subterranean granaries there were also 
barns. See note on Gen. xli, 48. 

2. In like manner oil is sometimes kept in jars buried in the ground ; and 
jars of honey might easily be kept in a similar manner. The ten men re- 
ferred to in the text who sought to purchase their lives of Ishmael, had con- 
cealed their treasures in the field so that no one should rob them. 

Some suppose that the " cellars of oil " belonging to David were merely 
places where oil jars were buried. See 1 Chron. xxvii, 28. 

Other treasures besides those mentioned in the text are frequently buried 
in the East. See note on Matt, xiii, 44. 

555.— SPEARS— SCALE ARMOR. 

XLVI, 4. Furbish the spears and put on the brigandines. 

1. Romach is rendered " spear" in Judges v, 8, and in several other texts; 
"javelin," in Num. xxv, 7; "buckler," in 1 Chron. xii, 8; (in the plural) 
"lancets," in 1 Kings xviii, 28. It is thought to have been a spear used by 
heavy-armed troops. Colonel Smith, in Kind's Cyclopadia. (s. v. " Arms,") 
says, " Probably the shepherd Hebrews, like nations similarly situated in 



Jeremiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 291 

northern Africa, anciently made use of the horn of an oryx, or a leucoryx, 
above three feet long, straightened in water, and sheathed upon a thorn- 
wood staff. "When sharpened, this instrument would penetrate the hide of 
a bull, and, according to Strabo, even of an elephant; it was light, very 
difficult to break, resisted the blow of a battle-ax, and the animals which 
furnished it were abundant in Arabia and in the desert east of Palestine. 
At a later period the head was of brass, and afterward of iron." These 
horn spears were probably the original type from which the various kinds 
of spears were subsequently produced. Precisely how the romach differed 
from the other -heavy spear, the chanith, (see note on 1 Sam. xvii, 7,) we 
cannot say. 

2. Siryon (" brigandine : ' in the text, and in Jer. li, 3) was a coat of 
scale armor ; the same as shirycn, which is rendered " coat of mail " in 
1 Sam. xvii, 5. where see the note. 

556.— HEAVY AXES. 
XLVI, 22. They shall march with an army and come against 
her with axes as hewers of wood. 

Kardom was a name given to an axe which seems to have been used 
especially for cutting down trees, and is thought to have had a heavier head 
than other axes. It is mentioned in Judges ix. 48; 1 Sam. xiii, 20. and Psa. 
lxxiv, 5. 

557.— THE GOD AMMON. 
XLVI, 25. Behold, I will punish the multitude of No, and 
Pharaoh, and Egypt, with their gods, and their kings. 

The most of commentators now agree that amon, here rendered " multi- 
tude," should be taken as a proper name, and left untranslated. The original 
is amon mimio, "Amon of No." By No is undoubtedly meant the celebrated 
Egyptian city of Thebes, which was situated on both sides of the Nile, and 
was noted for its hundred gates of brass, its numerous and splendid temples, 
obelisks, and statues. Amon was the name of an Egyptian deitv, and probably 
of a Libyan and Ethiopian god, whose worship had its seat in Thebes, where 
was an oracle of the deity; for which reason the name of the city was joined to 
that of the god. This is to be noticed not only in this text, but nlso in Nahum 
iii, 8, where for the " populous No " of our version the original has iVb Amon. 
The Greeks likened this god to Zeus, and the Romans called him Jupiter 
Ammon or Hammon. He appears to have been a personification of the sun, 
and is thought to have corresponded to Baal of the Phenicians. The 
ancient Egyptian name is said to have been Amen. On the monuments it is 
written Amn or Amn-Re, Amon the Sun. 

It was formerly supposed, and is still commonly asserted, that this god 



292 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Jeremiah. 



was represented under the figure of a human form with a ram's head. This, 
however, has of late beeu denied. Fairbairn says : "It was the god Neph, 

sometimes written Kneph, and by the 
Greeks ChnouMs, who was so represented, 
and the proper seat of whose worship was 
not Thebes, but Meroe, and who also had 
a famous oracle in the Lybian desert. The 
Araon of Thebes, ' king of gods ' as he was 
called, always had the form simply of a 
man assigned him, and .in one of the 
characters under which he was worshiped 
appears to have been virtually identified 
with the sun, and in another with the 
Egyptian Pan." — Imperial Bible Diction- 
ary. 

Wilkinson says, " The figure of Amun 
was that of a man, with a head-dress sur. 
mounted by two long feathers; the color 
of his body was light blue, liKe the Indian 
Vishnoo, as if to indicate his peculiarly 
but he was not figured with the head or 

Manners 
246. 




:\.MOX. 



exalted and heavenly nature 

under the form of a ram, as the Greeks and Romans supposed." 

and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. iv. p, 



558.— POURING WINE. 
XLVIII, 11. Moab hath been at ease from his youth, and he 
hath settled, on his lees, and hath not been emptied from 
vessel to vessel, neither hath he gone into captivity : there- 
fore his taste remaineth in him, and his seent is not changed. 

It is customary to pour wine from one vessel to another to improve its 
quality. Chardin says: " They frequently pour wine from vessel to vessel in 
the East ; for when they begin one, they are obliged immediately to empty it 
into smaller vessels, or into bottles, or it would grow sour." — Harmek's 
Observations, vol. ii, p. 155. Dr. Clarke, in a note on the same page, adds: 
"From the jars (says Dr. Russell. MS. note) in which the wine ferments it 
is drawn off into demyans, which contain peihaps twenty quart bottles, and 
from those into bottles for use ; but as these bottles are generally not well 
washed, the wine is often sour. The more careful use pint bottles, or half- 
pint bottles, and cover the surface with a little sweet oil." 

A similar allusion to the pouring of wine from the lees is made in Isa. 
xxv, 6, where see the note. See also Zeph. i. 12, where, as in this text, 
being "on the lees" is figuratively used to express a sinful rest. Jeremiah 
carries the figure of the text into the following verse, where, instead of 



Jeremiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 293 

11 wanderers," many commentators render tsaim by the word " tilters." "I 
will send imto him tilters, who shall tilt him up.' 1 The act of pouring the 
wine off the lees from one vessel to another is thus represented. 

559.— BEL. 
L, 2. Babylon is taken, Bel is confounded, Merodaeh is 
broken in pieces; her idols are confounded, her images are 
broken in pieces. 

1. Bel was the principal god of the Babylonians, and the third in rank 
among the Assyrians. The name is generally supposed to be the Clialdaic 
form of Baal, though this is disputed by some. For an account of Baal- 
worship see note on Num. xxii, 41. In addition to what is there stated, we 
may remark that the sacrifices offered to Bel consisted of adult cattle and 
their sucklings, together with incense. The horned cap, so frequently 
observed in Assyrian monuments, is supposed to have been the symbol of 
this god. Bel is also mentioned in Isa. xlvi, 1, and Jer. li, 44. 

2. The origin and meaning of the name Merodaeh are doubtful. Instead 
of being a separate deity from Bel, he is supposed to be identical ; the 
name being originally a descriptive epithet of Bel, which gradually became 
recognized as one of the names of that deity. On the monuments he is 
known as Bel Merodaeh. "Nebuchadnezzar calls him 'the king of the 
heavens and the earth,' 'the great lord,' 'the senior of the gods,' 'the most 
ancient,' 'the supporter of sovereignty,' 'the layer up of treasures,' etc., 
and ascribes to him all his glory and successes." — Rawlinson's Five Great 
Monarchies, vol. i, p. 135. 

560.— SIGN OF SUBMISSION. 
L, 15. She hath given her hand, her foundations are fallen, 
her walls are thrown down. 

This is a beautiful Orientalism denoting submission, and probably has 
some relation to the custom of giving the hand in pledge of a covenant. See 
note on Pro v. xi, 21. There are several texts where the expression is used : 
" We have given the hand to the Egyptians, and to the Assyrians to be satis- 
fied with bread." Lam. v, 6. When Hezekiah sent throughout all Israel 
and Judah his proclamation for a passover, he said to the people, among 
other things, "yield yourselves to the Lord." 2 Chron. xxx, 8. This is 
literally, "give the hand to Jehovah." At the beginning of Solomon's 
reign it is said : " And all the princes, and the mighty men, and all the sous 
likewise of king David, submitted themselves unto Solomon the king." 
1 Chron. xxix, 24. This is literally, "gave the hand under Solomon." 

This identical form is said by Roberts to be used in India at the present 
time. When two have quarreled, and one makes acknowledgment, he is 



294 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Jeremiah. 



said to " put his hand under." The same is said when a rebellious son 
submits to his father. The expression is not altogether figurative. When 




118. — Submission. 

one submits to a superior he stoops, and moves his hands to the ground, 
saying, " I submit, my lord." Hence the appropriateness of the language 
used. 

561.— BATTLE-AXES. 
LI, 20. Thou, art my battle-ax and. weapons of war : for 
with, thee will I break in pieces the nations, and with thee 
will I destroy kingdoms. 

Mappets, "battle-ax," is defined by Gesenius to be (: a mallet, a maul, a 
war-club ; " and he makes it identical with mephits, which in Prov. xxv, 18, 

is rendered " maul." Others, however, 
think that a heavy bladed instrument is 
meant. The Egyptian battle-ax was from 
two to two and a half feet in length, with 
a single blade, which was secured to the 
handle by bronze pins, while the handle in 
that part was bound with thongs to keep 
the wood from splitting. The soldier on a 
march either held it in his hand, or hung it 
on his back with the blade downward. 
The shape of the blade was the segment 
of a circle, divided at the back into two 
smaller segments whose points were fast- 

319.— Egyptian Battia-axks. ened by the pins already named. The 




Jeremiah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 295 

blade was made either of bronze or of steel. Another kind of battle-ax was 
about three feet in length, and had a large metal ball at the end, to which 
the blade was fixed. Either of these weapons was terrible, from the com- 
bination of weight with sharpness. 

"While the Persians often used the battle-ax it was rarely used by the 
Assyrians, though it is sometimes represented ou the monuments. These 
weapons seem to have had short handles and large heads, and to have been 
wielded with one hand. Some of them had two heads, like the Upennis of 
the Romans and the labra of the Lydians and Carians. The Chaldeans and 
Babylonians also made use of battle-axes. One belonging to the former is 
represented on an ancient clay tablet as having the blade of the ax 
balanced by three heavy spikes on the opposite side of the handle. 



LAMENTATIONS. 

562.— HANGING BY THE HAND. 

V, 12. Princes are hanged up by their hand. 

By whose hand the princes were hung up has been a matter of discussion 
among commentators. Some suppose that the text means they hung them- 
selves ; others that they were hung by the hand of their enemies ; others 
still that they were suspended by the hand, and in this helpless condition 
left to perish. In support of this last interpretation we give a statement by 
Roberts: "No punishment is more common than this in the East, especially 
for slaves and refractory children. Has a master an obstinate slave? has« 
he committed some great offense with his hands ? several men are called, 
who tie the offender's hands and hoist him to the roof, till he beg for forgive- 
ness. School-boys who are in the habit of playing truant are also thus 
punished. To tell a man that you will hang him by the hands is extremely 
provoking.". — Oriental Customs, p. 142. 

If this custom was practiced in the time of Jeremiah we can see how 
great an indignity was put upon the princes when they were punished after 
the manner of slaves. 



EZEKIEL. 



563.— WRITING ON BOTH SIDES. 
II, 10. He spread it before me ; and it was written within and 
without : and there was written therein lamentations, and 
mourning, and woe. 

The manuscript rolls were usually written only on one side, though some- 
times both sides were used. This was the case with the roll which Ezekiel 



296 



BIBLE MANNERS AXD CUSTOMS. 



Ezekiel. 



saw. So numerous were the troubles which were to come upon the children 
of Israel that the roll which contained an account of them was completely 
filled, it being necessary to write on both sides. Something like this is 
thought to be meant in Rev. v. 1. See note on Tsa. xxxiv, 4. 

564.— RECORDS ON POTTERY. 
IV, 1. Thou, also, son of man, take thee a tile, and. lay it be- 
fore thee, and portray upon it the city, even Jerusalem. 

Assyrian and Babylonian records were kept, not only on sculptured slabs 
of stone, but also on pottery. There were ■' cylinders," as they are called, 
some barrel-shaped, and some hexagonal or octagonal. These were made of 
very fine, thin, and strong te*rra-cotta, and were hollow. They were from a 
foot and a half to three feet in height, and were closely covered with cunei- 
form writing, which was often in such small characters as to require the aid 
of a magnifying glass to decipher it. These cylinders were placed at the 
corners of the temples, where many of them have been discovered. They 
were written in columns, and contain histories of the monarchs who reigned 
when the temples were built. 





120.— Assyrian Clay Tablets. 



In addition to these, clay tablets of various sizes were used, from nine 
inches by six and a half to one inch by one and a half. These were 
sometimes entirely covered with writing and pictorial representations. It 



Ezekiel.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



29' 



was on such a tile that Ezekiel was directed to make a represention of 
Jerusalem. 

When the clay was in a sofr, moist state, in its mold or frame the charac- 
ters were put upon it, perhaps in some instances by a stamp, but usually by 
means of a sharp edged bronze style about a foot long, by means of which 
each character was traced separately by hand, just as we use a pen. After 
the completion of the writing or pictures the clay was baked, and such, was 
the perfection of the manufacture that many of these articles have been pre- 
served from decay for three thousand years. 

They vary in color, owing, as some suppose, to the varying length of time 
they were in the kiln, while others think that some coloring matter must 
have been mixed with the clay. They are bright brown, pale yellow, pink, 
red, and a very dark tint nearly black. Usually the cylinders found are of 
a pale yellow, and the tablets a light red or pink. Some of them are un- 
glazed, and others are coated with a hard white enamel. 

565.— MOUNTS— FORTS— RAMS. 
IV, 2. And. lay siege against it, and build a fort against it, 
and east a mound against it; set the eamp also against it, and 
set battering-rams against it round about. 

Several important operations in ancient sieges are here noticed : 

1. The " mount " was an inclined plane which the besiegers of a castle or 

a walled town built up to the walls so that they could bring their engines of 

war closer, and work them to greater advantage. The mount was made of 

all. sorts of materials, earth, timber, boughs, and stones, the sides being 

walled up with brick or 

stone, and the inclined 

top made of layers of 

brick or stone, forming 

a paved road up which 

the war engines might 

be drawn. Some of 

these engines are de- 
scribed in the note on 

2 Chronicles xxvi. 15; 

another is mentioned 

below. Mounts were 

used by the Assyrians, 

Babylonians. Egyptians, 

Jews, and Greeks, and 

are often referred to in 

the Old Testament un- 
der the name of " banks " 




298 



BIBLE MANNERS AXD CUSTOMS. 



[Ezekiel, 



or " bulwarks," as well as " mounts." See, among other passages, Dent. 
xx, 20; 2 Sam. xx, 15; 2 Kings xix, 32; Isa. xxxvii, 33; Jer. vi, 6; 
xxxiii, 4; Ezek. xvii, 17. 

2. JDayeJc, " fort," was a watch-tower. Numbers of these towers were set 
up before a besieged city, for the purpose of watching and harassing the 
inhabitants. See also 2 Kings xxv, 1; Jer. Hi, 4; Ezek. xvii, 17 ; xxi, 22; 
xxvi, 8. 

3. The battering-ram is supposed to have been first used by the Phenicians. 
It consisted of a heavy beam of wood strengthened with iron plates, and 
terminating in an iron head made like that of a ram. Suspended from a 
wooden frame- work by ropes or chains, the beam was swung to and fro by 
the attacking party, and was struck against the wall with repeated blows 
until a breach was effected. The Assyrian armies were abundantly supplied 
with similar engines of war, though they were made after different patterns. 
It is to these that Ezekiel refers in the text. " Some had a head shaped like 






^ 







122. — Battering-rams. 



the point of a spear ; others, one more resembling the end of a blunderbuss. 
All of them were covered with a frame-work, which was of ozier, wood, felt, 
or skins, for the better protection of those who worked the implement; but 
some appear to have been stationary, having their frame resting on the 
ground itself; while others were movable, being provided with wheels." — 
Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, vol. i, p. 470. 

To oppose the ram various inflammable substances, such as tow, were 
thrown upon the light frame- work, setting it on fire. To extinguish this, those 
who worked the ram carried a supply of water. Again, a chain was let 
down by the besieged, and the end of the ram was caught in it, and the 
force of the blow neutralized by drawing the ram upward. To counteract 
this some of the besieging party were stationed below the ram, and provided 
with strong hooks which they caught in the descending chains, hanging on 
them with all their weight. 

Battering-rams were frequently used against walls from the ground, at 



Ezekiel.J BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 299 

the foot, but sometimes were drawn to the top of mounds such as have 
been just described. They are referred to, in addition to the text, in 
Ezek. xxi, 22, and probably in Ezek. xxvi, 9, under the name " engines of 
war. ; ' There may also be a reference to them in 2 Sam. xx, 15. 

566.— CHAMBERS OF IMAGERY. 
VIII, 10. So I went in and. saw ; and behold every form of 
creeping things, and abominable beasts, and all the idols of 
the house of Israel, portrayed upon the wall round about. 

The vivid description of what the prophet saw in his vision, as recorded 
in this remarkable chapter, is doubtless an ideal representation. The im- 
agery employed, however, is taken from scenes in actual life, and could find 
its realization in the tempies of ancient Egypt, where the Israelites learned 
many of their idolatrous practices. The tombs of Egypt, which are now ex- 
posed to the view of the traveler, have painted on them, in colors that are 
still bright, representations of various animals, and also of the gods. 
Whether or not these tombs were ever used as places of worship is a 
disputed point. Their painted walls, however, cannot but suggest the 
••chambers of imagery" mentioned by the prophet. See verse 12. The 
walls of their temples were in a similar way adorned with pictorial represen- 
tations of the animals and gods which they worshiped. 

In like manner were the temples of other ancient nations ornamented. 
In the temple of Belus were sculptured representations of men with two 
wings, and others with four; some having two faces, others the legs and 
horns of goats, or the hoofs of horses. There were bulls also with the heads 
of men, and horses with the heads of dogs. It was doubtless Similar 
monstrosities, and other figures too revolting for description, which Ezekiel 
saw. 

567.— TAMMUZ. 
VIII, 14. He brought me to the door of the gate of the Lord's 
house which was toward the north ; and, behold, there sat 
women weeping for Tammuz 

Notwithstanding the numerous and ingenious conjectures of various critics, 
nothing is positively known concerning the origin and meaning of this word. 
The opinion commonly received by commentators is that Tammuz was the 
Syrian name of Adonis, under which title the Phenicians worshiped the sun. 
Adonis is the Phenician, or old Hebrew, for " Lord," or "my Lord," and is 
the same in meaning as Baal. The worship of Adonis, which spread through 
many lands, was Phenician in origin, and was celebrated chiefly in Byblus, 
and in the temples of Aphrodite. According to the legend, Adonis was 
killed by a boar and afterward rose from the dead. This is supposed to re- 
present the sun's decline in winter and his returning strength in summer. 



300 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel. 

The ceremonies consisted in mourning over Ms death and searching for the 
idol which, represented his body, after which there were festivities accom- 
panied with gross debauchery. 

Others, however, recognizing the article in the original, making it the Tam- 
muz, have supposed the word to designate an idol set up for worship. An 
old Rabbinical commentator says that the image was made of metal, and was 
hollow. In the eye socket there was lead, which, on a fire being kindled 
within the hollow image, melted and ran down like tears. Another represents 
the Tammuz as a hollow image with holes through which water flowed. 
Those who adopt the idea that the image wept, whether from fire or water, 
render the text, " there sat women causing Tammuz to weep." 

Another ancient tradition makes Tammuz the name of an old idolatrous 
prophet, who was put to death by a king whom he endeavored to persuade 
to worship the stars. On the night of his death all the images gathered 
from the ends of the earth to the temple of Babel, where was the golden 
image of the sun. This image, suspended between heaven and earth, fell 
down in the midst of the temple, and ah the other images fell around it. and 
wept all night because of the death of the prophet. After this there was 
an annual mourning on account of his death. 

"Whether Tammuz was a myth, an idol, or a man, the women spoken of 
in the text were undoubtedly engaged in some acts of idolatrous worship 
which are called " abominations." 

568.— POSTURE IN WORSHIP. 
VIII, 16. Five and. twenty men, with, their backs toward the 
temple of the Lord, and their faces toward the east; and they 
worshiped the sun toward the east. 

This shows their connection with the fire-worshipers. All nations who 
worshiped the sun prayed with their faces turned to the East. The oldest 
temples of the fire-worshipers were built in such a manner that the entrance 
was on the west side, so that the worshipers faced the East on entering. 
The temple of Jehovah was built with the entrance in the East and the 
Oracle in the West, so that the worshipers turned their backs on the place 
of the rising sun. The perverted priests mentioned in the text disrespectfully 
turned their backs on the Oracle, and faced the East like the fire- worshipers. 

569. — TWIGS USED IN HEATHEN WORSHIP. 
VIII, 17. They put the branch to their nose. 

According to Strabo and others; when the fire-worshipers prayed before 
the sacred fire, they held in the left hand a little bunch of twigs called 
barsom, and applied it to the'r mouth when uttering prayer. Hengstenberg 
says: "The nose is derisively mentioned in place of the mouth, according to 




EzeMel.J BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 80 i 

the leaning to irony and sarcasm, which appears so often in the prophets 
when they oppose and chastise superstitious folly." — Commentary on 
Ezekiel. 

Some think the reference here is to the custom of divining by rods. See 
note on Hosea iv, 12. 

570.— THE INKHORN. 

IX, 2. One man among them was clothed, with linen, with a 
writer's inkhorn by his side. 

It is still customary in the East to put into the girdle the case containing 
writing implements. It consists of two parts, a receptacle for the pen?, 

and a box for the 
ink. It is some- 
times made of eb- 
ony or some other 
hard wood, but gen- 
erally of metal — 
brass, copper, or 

123— INKHOEN. ., ' \^ ; . , 

suver — o(ten high- 
ly polished and of exquisite workmanship. It is about nine or ten inches 
long, one and a half or two inches wide, and half an inch deep. The 
hollow shaft contains pens of reed and a penknife, and has a lid. To 
the upper end of this case the inkstand is soldered if of metal. This is a 
small box, square, round, or polygonal; has a lid which moves on hinges, aud 
fastens with a clasp. It is usually twice as heavy as the shaft. The pro- 
jection of the inkstand is seen outside the girdle, while the shaft is concealed 
by its folds. 

571.— MARKS OF CONSECRATION. 

IX, 4. Set a mark upon the foreheads of the men that sigh 
and that cry for all the abominations that be done in the midst 
thereof. 

This mark was to be put on these faithful ones for their protection when 
the faithless were to be destroyed. It showed that they belonged to God. 
The allusion is to a very ancient custom. In Egypt a runaway slave was 
freed from his master if he went to the temple and gave himself up to the 
god, receiving certain marks upon his person to denote his consecration to 
the deity there worshiped. Cain had a mark put on him for his protection, 
as an evidence of G-od's promise to spare his life notwithstanding his wicked- 
ness. Gen. iv, 15. To this day all Hindoos have some sort of mark upon 
their forehead signifying their consecration to their gods. Several passages 
m the book of Revelation represent the saints as having a mark on their 

-19 



802 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel 

foreheads. See Rev. vii. 3 ; ix, 4 ; xiv, 1 ; xxii, 4. The followers of the 
'•beast" are also said to be marked in the forehead or in the hands. See 
Rev. xiii, 16, 17 ; xiv, 9 ; xx, 4. The Romans marked their soldiers in the 
hand and their slaves in the forehead. The woman in scarlet, whom John 
saw, had a name written on her forehead. Rev. xvii, 5. 
See also note on Gal. vi, 17. 

572.— UNSTABLE WALLS. 
XIII, 10. One built up a wall, and, lo, others daubed, it with 
untempered mortar. See also Ezek. xxii, 28. 

Kitto is of the opinion that reference is here made to "cob- walls; " that is, 
walls which are made of beaten earth rammed into molds or boxes, to give 
shape and consistence, and then emptied from the molds, layer by layer, 
on the wall, where it dries as the work goes on. Such walls cannot stand 
the effects of the weather, and houses built on this principle soon crumble 
and decay. See note on Job xv, 28. To protect them from the weather a 
very fine mortar is sometimes made, which is laid thickly on the outside of 
the walls. When this mortar is properly mixed with lime it answers the 
purpose designed ; but where the lime is left out, as is often the case, the 
" untempered mortar " is no protection. For mode of making mortar, see 
note on Lev. xiv, 42. 

Some commentators, however, translate taphel, which in our version is 
rendered " untempered mortar," by the word ''whitewash." They represent 
the idea of the text to be the figure of a wall of unendurable material, and 
coated, not with cement which might protect it, but with a mere thin 
covering of lime, which gives the wall a finished durable appearance, 
which its real character does not warrant. Thus Paul calls the high priest, 
"thou whited wall." Acts xxiii, 3. See note on " whited sepulchers," un- 
der Matt, xxiii, 27. 

573.— PILLOWS— KERCHIEFS. 

XIII, 18. Woe to the women that sew pillows to all armholes, 
and make kerchiefs upon the head of every stature to hunt 
souls. 

It is not by any means certain that the customs alluded to in this text can, 
at this late day, be explained. 

1. The pillows sewed to the armholes, or to the " elbows," as the margin 
has it, are usually supposed to mean the soft cushions which are placed on 
Oriental divans. Among the poorer classes the skins of sheep or of goats 
were formerly used for pillows, being stuffed with chaff or wool for this pur- 
pose. The pillows of the wealthy were, of course, more luxurious in style and 
in finish. They were stuffed with some soft substance, and covered with 



Ezekiel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 303 

rich and costly materials. These, placed on the bed on the divan, (see notes 
on 2 Kings i, 4, and on Amos hi, 12,) made a luxurious resting-place for 
the arms. 

Other interpretations, however, have been given of the passage. Instead of 
tl armholes" or "elbows" some authorities have, as a more literal interpreta- 
tion," joints of the bands." See G-esenius, Lexicon, and Fairbairn, Commen- 
tary. Others render atstsile yadai, "joints of my hands." See Hengstenberg 
and "Wordsworth, and the authorities cited by the latter. These commen- 
tators suppose the meaning to be that, when God stretched forth his hands 
to punish sin, the false prophets covered them by their heterodox teaching, so 
that bis hands would not seem to be able to grasp the rebellious offenders. 

It has also been suggested by an old writer that the false prophetesses 
referred to in the text practiced divination, and that the pillows were amu- 
lets, which were fitted to their sleeves to aid them in their work. We have 
not been able, however, to find any evidence of the existence of such a cus- 
tom. Verse 20 of this chapter seems to intimate that the pillows were not 
merely made for the arms, but fastened to the arms : " I will tear them from 
your arms." We have no evidence, however, that it refers to divination. 

2. Mispachoth, "kerchiefs," has been variously rendered "cushions," 
"quilts," "coverings for the head," and "long, flowing robes or mantles." 

The word is generally thought to signify large and costly coverings for the 
head. Some suppose these to have been designed to add to the luxur} r and 
attractiveness of the wicked prophetesses who wore them. Kitto connects 
the practice with the worship of Astarte, in whose figures there is always 
something remarkable about the head-dress. Others, however, who suppose 
the pillows to have been cushions covering the hand of Jehovah, as already 
noted, place these head-dresses on the heads of the ungodly people who merit 
Divine retribution, and regard the figure as further carrying out the idea 
that the wicked prophetesses endeavored to neutralize the blow of Jehovah's 
judgment, not only by covering his hands, but also by covering the heads 
of the guilty. 

Another interpretation, however, makes these mispachoth similar to the 
mitpachoth of Isa. iii, 22, " wimples " in our version. See the note on that 
text. Dr. Alexander, editor of Kitto' s Cyclopedia, calls attention to the affinity 
between the two words, and also notices the fact that, in verse 21, the 
mispachoth are shown to be articles that can be torn. He therefore adopts 
ihe opinion of Kimchi, who says that the mispachoth were long loose robes 
such as the goddesses are represented as wearing, and in which the women 
referred to in the text wrapped themselves from head to foot. For " ker- 
chiefs upon the head of every stature," Dr. Alexander would read, "robes 
of every length on the head ; " that is, these luxurious women made use of 
elegant and well-fitting robes. 



304 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel. 

574.— BABES SALTED. 
XVI, 4. Thou wast not salted, at all. 

In ancient times new-born babes were rubbed with salt in order to harden 
'their skin, as this operation was supposed to make it dry, tight, and firm. 
Galen mentions the practice, and it is also referred to by Jerome in his com- 
mentary on this passage. The salt may also have been applied as an 
emblem of purity and incorruption. * 

575.— PITFALLS. 

XIX, 4. The nations also heard, of him, he was taken in their 
pit. 

There is thought to be an allusion here to the custom of assembling for 
the capture of a lion or other wild beast when the news of its depredations 
goes forth. All who hear of it are expected to aid in the capture. 

The special mode of capture referred to in this text is by meaus of the 
pitfall. A hole is dug in the ground, and covered over with the branches 
of trees and with sod. The animal treading on this slight covering is pre- 
cipitated into the pit, where it is either taken out alive or killed by the 
hunters on their arrival. 

Figurative allusion is made to the pitfall in Psa. vii, 15 ; ix, 15 , 
xxxv, 7; xciv, 13; Prov. xxvi, 27; Isa. xxxviii, 17. 

576.— SCEPTERS. 
XIX, 11. She had strong rods for the scepters of them that bare 
rule. 

Scepters were originally nothing but simple rods cut from the branches of 
trees, and more or less ornamented. They were in later times more elabo- 
rately made, and sometimes, instead of wood, the material was gold. Esther 
v, 2. The opinion that the scepter originated with the shepherd's staff, be- 
cause the first kings were mostly nomad princes, though entertained by 
some eminent authorities, is rejected by others equally eminent. The scep- 
ter of the ancient Egyptian kings is said, by Diodorus Siculus, to have re- 
sembled, not a shepherd's crook, but a plow. The scepter may have been 
originally used by kings and leaders simply because it was the most natural 
support and weapon ; while subsequent circumstances changed its form and 
significance. 

577.— SMITING THE HANDS. 
XXI, 14. Thou, therefore, son of man, prophesy, and smite 
thine hands together. 

Several different emotions seem to have been represented at different times 
by the action of smiting the hands, all of which we group in one note. 



Ez3kiel.^ BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 305 

1. It was sometimes a sign of contempt Of the wicked rich man Job 
says, " Men shall clap their hands at him, and shall hiss him out of his 
place." Job xxvii, 23. Jeremiah represents Jerusalem as so desolate that 
all the passers-by clap their hands at her. See Lam. ii, 15. 

2. It was sometimes a sign of anger. When Balaam blessed Israel, in- 
stead of cursing them, "Balak's anger was kindled against Balaam, and he 
smote his hands together." Num. xxiv, 10. So when the Lord beheld the 
wickedness of the house of Israel, the representation of his kindled wrath 
is expressed in these words: "Behold, therefore I have smitten mine hand 
at thy dishonest gain which thou hast made, and at thy blood which hath 
been in the midst of thee." Ezek. xxii, 13. 

3. It was sometimes a sign of sorroio. In sorrow, for the idolatry of 
Israel, the Lord commanded Ezekiel to smite with his hand. See Ezek. 
vi, 11. 

4. It was sometimes a sign of triumph. In this manner the Ammonites 
rejoiced over fallen Israel. G-od says, " Thou hast clapped thine hands, and 
stamped with the feet, and rejoiced in heart with all thy despite against 
the land of Israel." Ezek. xxv, 6. It is to be noticed that in this text, and 
in the one last quoted, clapping the hand is connected with stamping the 
foot. 

5. It was sometimes the sign of a pledge or an oath. The hand was used 
for this purpose by uplifting. See note on Gen. xiv, 22. A similar purpose 
was accomplished by two persons striking hands. See note on Prov. xi, 21. 
In addition to this, the striking of one hand upon another belonging to the 
same man was also considered as a pledge of earnestness and of truth. 
Thus Ezekiel is told in the text to smite his hands together, and in verse 
17 the Lord promises to smite his hands together. In both instances there 
is a pledge to the performance of what is stated. 

Smiting the hands together has the signification of an oath in some parts 
of the East to this day. 

57§.— THREE MODES OF DIVINATION. 
XXI, 21. For trfe king of Babylon stood at the parting of the 
way, at the head, of the two ways, to use divination : he made 
his arrows bright, he consulted with images, he looked in the 
liver. 

Three modes of divination are here mentioned as having been practiced 
by the king of Babylon when he came to the junction of two ways and was 
unable to decide which to take. 

1. Belomancy, or divination by arrows. Kilkal bachitsim, "he made his 
arrows bright," is literally, "he shook the arrows," alluding to the mode of 
using the arrows for the purpose of divination. According to Jerome, in the 



806 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel 

case referred to in the text, each arrow to be used bad on it the name of 
some town to be attacked. The arrows so marked were put into a quiver 
and shaken together, after which they were drawn one by one. The cities 
were to be attacked in the order in which the arrows were drawn. As " Jeru- 
salem " was on the arrow first drawn, thither the king proceeded. Another 
old writer says that the arrows were thrown up to see which way they 
would fall, and in this manner the course to be taken was indicated. 

Some of the sculp: ured slabs at Nimroud are supposed to represent divi- 
nation of this sort, the king being seen with arrows in his hand. 

This superstition was much practiced by the Arabs, notwithstanding it is 
prohibited in the Koran : " It is likewise unlawful for you to make division 
by casting lots with arrows. This is an impiety." — Koran, chap, v, (Sale's 
translation. See also Mr. Sale's Preliminary Discourse, § 5.) 

The Arabs were in the habit of consulting their arrows before any thing of 
importance was undertaken. These arrows were parti-colored, were with- 
out heads or feathers, and were kept in some sacred place. Seven of them 
were kept in the temple at Mecca. In divination the Arabs generally used 
but three, though sometimes they used four. On one of the arrows was 
written, in Arabic, " My Lord hath bidden me ; " on the second, " My Lord 
hath forbidden me; " the third was blank. If the first was drawn, the pro- 
posed enterprise was carried out ; if the second was drawn, the project was 
abandoned; if the third was brought out, the arrows had to be again mixed 
and drawn until a decided answer was obtained. 

2. Consultation of the teraphim. " He consulted with images." The 
Hebrew word is teraphim. Fairbairn says : " This is the only place where 
the use of teraphim is expressly ascribed to a heathen, though in 1 Sam. 
xv, 23, it is stigmatized as of an essentially heathen and, consequently, ob- 
noxious character: ' Stubbornness is as iniquity and teraphim.' " — Commentary 
in loco. The Hebrews were very much addicted to this form of divina- 
tion. See note on Gen. xxxi, 19. 

3. Hepatoscopy, or inspection of the liver. This is a branch of splanchno- 
mancy, or divination by inspection of the viscera, and is often referred to by 
classic writers. It is said that among the Lusitani the livers were obtained, 
not only from animals offered in •sacrifice, but also from prisoners taken 
in war ! 

The Orientals considered the liver to be the most valuable of the viscera 
because they thought it most concerned in the formation of the blood, and 
they believed that in the blood is the life. The ancient Jews, Greeks, and 
Romans, and some other nations, supposed the liver to be the seat of the 
passions. In like manner the Arabs of the present day regard the liver as 
the seat of courage ; and among the Malay peoples the liver is considered the 
seat of all moral impressions and feeling*. One names another caressingly. 



Ezekiel.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



307 



" My liver I " " My liver is sick " is, in other words, "1 am angry." "My 
liver is anxious," "my liver wishes," is absolutely equivalent, in other 
words, to "my heart," "my soul." — See Delitzsch's System of Biblical 
Psychology, p. 316. 

This widely-diffused idea of antiquity, traces of which are still to be found, 
may account for the fact that the liver was considered the most important 
of the viscera for divining purposes. The lower part of the liver was the 
portion which was used in divination, and there were certain signs which 
were considered to be of good or bad omen. If the liver was of good sizn, 
sound, and without spot or blemish, prosperity and success were expected. 
If it was too dry, and had blisters, pustules, or any corrupt humors; if it was 
parched, thin, hard, or of an ugly black color, disappointment and adverse 
fate were looked for. 

This revolting mode of divination was practiced not only by the Baby- 
lonians, as indicated in the text, but by the Greeks and Romans also. Theie 
is no evidence, however, of its existence among the Jews. 

579.— ASSYRIAN GARMENTS. 
XXIII, 12. She doted, upon the Assyrians her neighbors, cap- 
tains and. rulers clothed most gorgeously, horsemen riding 
upon horses, all of them desirable young men. 



all of them desirable 
The Assyrians were famous for their rich and costly apparel, 
pression "Assyrian garments'' be- 
came synonymous with elegant and 
expensive clothing. Bonomi says: 
" The robes of the Assyrians were 
generally ample and flowing, but 
differed in form from those of the 
Egyptians and the Persians. They 
consisted of tunics or robes varying 
in length, in mantles of diverse 
shapes, of long-fringed scarfs, and 
of embroidered girdles. Ornaments 
were scattered with profusion over 
these dresses, some of which appear 
to have been emblematic of cer- 
tain dignities or employments." — 
Nineveh and its Palaces, p. 431. 

The figures sculptured on the 
Assyrian marbles attest to the truth- 
fulness of the description given in 
the text. Bonomi gives an interest- 
ing extract from Mr. Smirk's re- 



The ex- 




o08 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel. 

view of the Assyrian sculptures, which may serve to illustrate the subject : 
"The apparel of the Assyrians appears by these sculptures to have been 
almost always richly fringed, with wide borders ornamented with figures of 
men, animals, and foliage. The caparison of their horses is most gorgeous; 
every strap of their head and body-housings is enriched; to the chariot 
horses is usually seen attached, apparently either to the extremity of the 
pole or to the trappings of the neck, and to the front of the chariot itself, a 
long fish-shaped piece of drapery fringed and embroidered. Layard is at 
a loss to designate this object. Perhaps ' the precious clothes for chariots,' 
alluded to by Ezekiel (see Ezek. xxvii, 20) as being obtained by the people 
of Tyre from Dedan, may have reference to this singular piece of horse- 
furniture." — Nineveh and its Palaces, p. 437. 

580.— MURAL SCULPTURES. 
XXIII, 14. She saw men portrayed upon the wall, the images 
of the Chaldeans portrayed with vermilion. 

Here is a manifest reference to those wonderful mural sculptures which, 
after being buried for centuries amid the ruins of the palaces and temples 
whose walls they once adorned, have been brought to light by the per- 
severance and skill of modern explorers. It is not at all improbable that 
Ezekiel himself once saw the very marbles that the eyes of this generation 
are permitted to behold. 

The Assyrian and Chaldean sculptures were colored. Traces of red, 
blue, and black still remain on the beard and hair, and on some of the 
head-coverings. The Assyrian red was more brilliant than the Egyptian. 
It is almost vermilion in the sculptures of Khorsabad, and a brilliant crimson 
or lake-tint in those of Nimroud. Bonomi and some others suppose that 
there were originally other colors used on the sculptures, but that, being 
more destructible than those which remain, they have disappeared in the lapse 
of time. There is no positive evidence of this, though it is highly probable. 

581.— MUTILATIONS. 

XXIII, 25. I will set my jealousy against thee, and they shall 
deal furiously with thee : they shall take away thy nose and 
thine ears. 

These mutilations were common among the Chaldeans and Persians. 
Among the former adulterers were punished in this manner, which fact, is 
doubtless the basis of the reference in the text. 

582.— WEAPONS BURIED. 
XXXII, 27. Which are gone down to hell with their weapons 
of war : and they have laid their swords under their heads. 

This is an allusion to an ancient custom of burying the weapons of war 
with the warrior. Chardin says that " in Mingrelia they all sleep with their 



Ezjkiel.l BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 309 

swords under their heads and their other arras by their sides; and they 
bury them in the same manner, their arms being placed in the same posi- 
tion." — Harmer's Observations, vol. iii, p. 55. 

5§3.— WRITING ON RODS. 
XXXVII, 20. The sticks whereon thou writest shall be in thine 
hand, before their eyes. 

We find the practice of writing on rods alluded to as early as the time of 
Moses. See Num. xvii, 2. A similar practice was known among the 
Greeks. The laws of Solon, which were preserved at Athens, were written 
on billets of wood called axones. These were of a square or pyramidal form, 
and made to turn on an axis. The northern naiions and the ancient Britons 
also wrote on sticks. Some of these were square and some three sided, and 
each side contained one line. These sticks were sometimes set in a frame- 
work which was called Peithynen, or the Elucidator. At one end of each 
stick was a knob projecting beyond the frame. By means of these knobs the 
sticks could be turned and the successive lines read. "Stick almanacs" 
were used in England almost to the fourteenth century. Some were large, 
and hung up on one side of the mantel-piece ; while others were small enough 
to be carried in the pocket. 

5§4— THE BATH. 
XLV, 10. Ye shall have just balances, and. a just ephah, and a 
just bath. 

The bath was a measure of liquids, such as wine and oil, and was of the 
same capacity as the ephah in dry measure. See note on Exod. xvi, 36. It 
is supposed to have contained nearly nine gallons. It is referred to also in 
Isa. v, 10. The "measures " mentioned in Luke xvi, 6, are baths. 

See also note on John ii, 6. 

5§5.— THE MANEH. 

XLV, 12. Twenty shekels, five-and-twenty shekels, fifteen 
shekels, shall be your maneh, 

Maneh is supposed by some to be the origin of the Latin moneta and the 
English money; though others give to the word a different etymology. It 
was the standard pound among Hebrew weights, and the word is rendered 
" pound" in several passages. See 1 Kings x, 17 ; Ezra ii, 69; Neh. vii, 71, 
72. In this text it is untranslated. The word often occurs on the Assyr- 
ian inscriptions also. 

The ordinary maneh in use among the Hebrews is supposed to have 
weighed a hundred shekels, or about one pound fourteen ounces avoirdupois. 



310 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Ezekiel. 

In this text, however, another maneh seems to be mentioned. The pas- 
sage is confessedly obscure, and various interpretations have been given 
of it. 

Some think that three distinct manehs are referred to : one of twenty, one 
of twenty-five, and one of fifteen shekels. Hengstenberg suggests that the 
maneh was of foreign origin, and that the three different values here 
attached are the estimates put upon it in the different countries where it was 
used. 

Others suppose that the text refers to but a single maneh of sixty shekels 
divided into three parts, 20+25+15. Chardin found this a customary mode 
of reckoning in the East ; and though it seems strange to us, yet if the cus- 
tom was practiced in Ezekiel's time, it was but natural that the maneh 
should be described in this way. 

586.— THE COR. 
XLV, 14. The Cor, which is a homer of ten baths. 

The cor, or homer, was used for either dry or liquid measure. The liquid 
cor is supposed to have contained seventy-five gallons. The dry cor is sup- 
posed to have contained eight bushels and a pint. It is mentioned in 1 Kings 
iv, 22. and Luke xvi, 7, in both of which places it is rendered " measures." 



DANIEL 



5§7.— TEMPLE TREASURES. 
1, 2. He brought the vessels into the treasure-house of his 
God. 

It is customarv in every heathen temple to have a particular place for 
storing the sacred jewels and other valuables which are supposed to be the 
special property of the idol there worshiped. Nebuchadnezzar having brought 
from Jerusalem, as trophies of war, the sacred vessels of the temple, placed 
them in the temple of Belus at Babylon side by side with the costly orna- 
ments and utensils which were appropriated to idolatrous worship. 

There were also in the temple at Jerusalem rooms specially set apart for 
the reception of tithes, and for the storing of valuable articles belonging to the 
sacred edifice. See 1 Chron. ix, 26 ; 2 Chron. xxxi, 11 ; Neh. x, 38. 

588.— BABYLONIAN MODE OF LIVING. 
I, 5. The king appointed them a daily provision of the king's 
meat, and of the wine which he drank. 

This would have been a very luxurious mode of living for these Hebrew 
lads, quite in contrast to what they had been accustomed to, and to the 



Dud. 1.-1 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 311 

extremely plain diet which Daniel requested for himself and his companions. 
The Babylonian kings and nobles were noted for their high living. Their ta- 
bles were loaded with wheaten bread, meats in great variety, luscious fruits, 
fish, and game. The usual beverage was wine of the best varieties, and 
they were fond of drinking to excess. The ancient Persian kings followed 
the custom of the Babylonian monarch, and fed their attendants from their 
own tables. 

589.— PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS. 

II, 5. Ye shall be cut in pieces, and your houses shall be 
made a dunghill. See also chap, iii, 29. 

1. Cutting into pieces was a punishment common to many ancient nations, 
it was known to the Hebrews, and was inflicted by Samuel upon Agag. 
See 1 Sam. xv, 33. Some think that dichotomy, or sawing asunder, is the 
punishmei t here referred to. See note on Heb. xi, 37. 

2. According to Babylonian customs the house in which the criminal lived 
was sometimes destroyed, and the very land on which his dwelling stood 
considered cursed forever. The custom was also known among the Persians. 
See the decree of Darius in Ezra vi, II. It was likewise practiced at 
Athens. There were many spots in the midst of that populous city 
which were kept perpetually vacant by reason of a decree similar to that 
referred to in the text. 

590.— MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

III, 5. The sound of the cornet, flute, harp, saekbut, psaltery, 
dulcimer. See verses 7, 10, and 15. 

1. Keren, "cornet," is described in the note on 1 Chron. xxv, 5. 

2. MashroJcitha, "flute," was an instrument supposed by some to have been 
like the chalil, "pipe." See note on 1 Kings i, 40. Others think it con- 
sisted of a number of pipes similar to the ugab, " organ." See note on Psa. 
cl, 4. 

3. Kathros, " harp," is thought by Rawlinson to repre- 
sent the Babylonian harp, which, he says, " would seem 
to have resembled the later harp of the Assyrians, but it 
had fewer strings, if we may judge from a representation 
upon a cylinder. Like the Assyrian, it was carried under 
one arm and was played by both hands, one on either 
side of the strings." — Five Ancient Monarchies, vol. iii, p. 20. 
It is thought by some to have less resembled the harp than 
the cithern or cittern, which was an instrument of Greek 
origin, and in use among the Chaldeans. It was of the 
guitar specie?, and is still used in many eastern countries. 
It ha? strings varying in number from three totwentv-four. 




312 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[DanieL 



4. Sabbeca, "sackbut," is thought to have resembled the sambuca of the 
Romans. Rawlinson supposes it to have been a large harp, resting on the 
ground like the harps of the Egyptians. Wright (in Smith's Dictionary 
of the Bible) states that the sambuca was triangular in shape, having four or 
more strings ; it was played by the fingers, and gave forth a shrill sound. 

5. Pesanterin, "psaltery," was a species of harp, thought to be the same 
as the nebel. See note on Psa. xxxiii, 2. Rawlinson suggests that it may 
have resembled the modern m atour, and if so, he supposes that he has found 

a representation of it on an As- 
syrian monument. It was a sort 
of dulcimer, which was sus- 
pended from the neck of the 
musician, and projected horizon- 
tally from his waist. " It con- 
sisted (apparently) of a number 
of strings, containing not fewer 
than ten, stretched over a hollow 
case or sounding-board. The 
musician seems to have struck 
the strings with a small bar or 
hammer held in his right hand, 
while, at the same time, he made 
some use of his left hand in 
pressing them so as to produce 
the right note." — Five Ancient 
Monarchies, vol. i, pp. 537, 538. 

6. Sumpongah, " dulcimer," is 
variously thought to have been a 
lute, a crooked trumpet, a long 
drum, an organ, and a bagpipe. 
Gesenins, and others with him, 
suppose the last-named instru- 
ment to be meant. The bagpipe 
is, at the present day, called in Italy sampogna, and in Asia Minor sambony. 
It may be noted, as a curious illustration of the wide difference of opinion 
in respect to many of the ancient musical instruments, that some authorities 
consider the bagpipe to be intended by the word ugab. See note on Psa. 
cl, 4. 

The monuments amply testify to the fondness of the Babylonians for 
music. They had numerous instruments, and organized large bands. Anna- 
rus. a Babylonian noble, entertained his guests at a banquet with music, vo- 
cal and instrumental, performed by a band of one hundred and fifty women. 




126. — Musician Playing the Dulcimer. 



Daiiel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 813 



591.— HOUR— BURNING ALIVE. 
Ill, 6. And. whoso falleth not down and worshipeth shall 
the same hour be east into the midst of a burning fiery 
furnace. 

1. This is the first indication we have in sacred history of so short a divis- 
ion of time as an hour. Shaah, " hour," is supposed to be a vague expres- 
sion for a short time, whose duration is not distinctly defined, rather than 
for the definite time which we understand by the word hour. Indeed, we 
ourselves use the word occasionally in an indefinite sense. The word is, 
however, worthy of notice here, because it is claimed that the Babylonians 
were the first to make a regular division of the day into hours. The Greeks 
learned it from them, (see Herodotus, ii, 109;) and probably the Jews did 
the same, since there is no allusion to hours among them before the time of 
the captivity, while afterward the use of this division of time is frequently 
noticed. See further note on John xi. 9. 

2. Burning alive was a very ancient punishment among the Babylonians, 
and possibly among other nations. Jeremiah mentions two false prophets 
who were to be put to death in this manner. See Jer. xxix, 22. The cus- 
tom has come down to modern times in Persia. Chardin says that, in 1668, he 
saw ovens in Ispahan heated by royal command to terrify certain bakers 
who were disposed to put a heavy charge on their bread in time of scarcity. 
He speaks of the punishment of burning as recognized at that time, refractory 
cooks being spitted and roasted, and bakers thrown into an oven. It is sup- 
posed by some that there is a reference to burning as a capital punishment 
in Psa. xxi, 9: "Thou shalt make them as a fiery oven iu the time of thine 
anger: the Lord shall swallow them up in his wrath, and the fire shall de- 
vour them." 

592.—'- MIGHTY MEN." 
111,20. He commanded the most mighty men that were in 
his army to bind Shadraeh, Meshaeh, and Abed-nego, and 
to east them into the burning fiery furnace. 

On the monuments discovered at Khorsabad there are representations of 
gigantic and muscular men, like the il mighty men " of the text, who seem to 
have been always in attendance on the king, waiting to execute his orders. 
Such men were selected from the army on account of their size and strength, 
just as it is customary in the present day in Europe, as well as in the East, 
to select men of unusual stature as porters or guards in the palaces of kings. 
The monuments represent these men as clad in a peculiar costume, beautiful 
iu style, and rich in ornament. It was probably men of this description who, 
at the king's command, took the unfortunate captives and tossed them into 
the fiery furnace. 



314 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Daniel. 

593.— VARIOUS GARMENTS. 
Ill, 21. Then these men were bound, in their coats, their 
hosen, and their hats, and their other garments. 

It is not easy to tell the precise articles of costume intended by the original 
words which our translators have rendered as above, though the improved 
sources of exposition in our day add to the knowledge which they possessed. 
Bevan, in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, vol. i, p. 457, renders as follows: 

1. Sarbalin, "coats," (marg., "mantles,") were drawers, which made the 
distinctive feature in the Persian as compared with the Hebrew dress. 

2. Patish, " hosen," was an inner tunic. 

3. Carbala, "hat," {marg., "turban,") was an upper tunic. 

4. Lebush, "garments," was a cloak which was worn over all. 

594.— THE USE OF METAL. 

V, 4. The gods of gold, and of silver, of brass, of iron. 

The working of metal into various artic'es of ornament or of use is an art 
as old as the days of Tubal-Cain. See Gen iv. 22. The different metals re- 
ferred to in this text are frequently spoken of in the Bible. There is no 
question as to their identity, except in the case of nechash, which is the 
Chaldee form of nechosheth, and in the text is rendered "brass." The facti- 
tious metal known by this name, and which is compounded of copper and 
zinc, is said to be of a later date than the early historic times of the Bible. 
It certainly cannot be intended by the word nechosheth in such passages as 
Deut. viii, 9, and Job xxviii, 2. Copper is probably the metal there referred 
to as being dug out of the earth. The same word is rendered "steel" in 
2 Sam. xxii, 35; Job xx, 24; Psa. xviii, 34, and Jer. xv, 12. Inasmuch as 
copper is better worked when alloyed, and as tin was known at a very early 
day, (see Num. xxxi, 22,) it is supposed that a combination of these two 
metals — that is, bronze — was used in the manufacture of different articles. 
Tools, utensils, and ornaments of bronze are found among the Egyptian and 
Assyrian remains. The vessels of the Tabernacle, which are represented in 
our version as made of "brass," (nechosheth,) were probably either copper or 
bronze. See Exod. xxxviii, 2-6, 8. 

595.— PRAYER. 

VI, 10. His windows being open in his chamber toward Jeru- 
salem, he kneeled upon his knees three times a day, and 
prayed, and gave thanks before his God, as he did aforetime. 

1. For the position of this chamber, see note on 2 Kings iv, 10. 

2. He did not look toward the sun, as the fire- worshipers did, (see note 



taniel.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 315 

on Ezek. viii, 16,) but toward Jerusalem, where the temple of Jehovah 
stood, and where the sacred Presence was in the Oracle. This seems to 
have been a custom among the Jews when they were away from the Holy 
City. See 1 Kings viii, 44,48; 2 Chron. vi, 34; Psa. v, 1 ; xxviii, 2 5 
cxxxviii, 2 ; Jonah ii, 4. See also note on Matt, iv, 23. 

3. There was no legal prescription in the Jewish ritual of any hours for 
seasons of prayer. The hours of morning and evening sacrifice would 
naturally be suggested to the mind of a pious Jew as suitable times for prayer. 
To this might easily be added a time midway. This appears to have been 
the case with David, who says: " Evening, and morning, and at noon, will I 
pray, and cry aloud: and he shall hear my voice." Psa. Iv, 17. The order 
in which these three seasons of prayer are named by the psalmist seems to 
indicate the origin of the custom as just suggested. In the text Daniel is 
said to have prayed " three times a day." From Dan. ix, 21, it appears that 
one of these seasons of prayer was at the time of evening sacrifice ; the two 
others were probably the same as those mentioned by David. In later 
limes the precise hour is more clearly indicated. Compare Acts ii, 15 ; x, 9 ; 
iii, 1. 

596.— COURT ETIQUETTE— IRREVERSIBLE EDICTS. 

VI, 15. Know, O king, that the law of the Medes and Persians 
is, That no decree nor statute which the king establisheth may 
be changed. See also verses 8 and 12. 

1. Lowth (W.) calls attention to an illustration of court etiquette con- 
tained in this text as compared with Esther i, 19. Here the expression 
" Medes and Persians " is used, the Medes being named first because Darius 
was a Mede. In the other instance, in the book of Esther, the expression is 
"Persians and Medes," Persians being named first out of compliment to 
Ahasuerus, who was a Persian. 

2. The strict etiquette of the Persian court obliged the king never to re- 
voke an order once given, however much he might regret it, because in so 
doing he would contradict himself, and, according to Persian notions, the law 
could not contradict itself. A curious instance of the unchangeable character 
of the Medo-Persian law is here seen in the fact that, after Ahasuerus had 
issued the order directing the cruel slaughter of the Jews, (Esther iii, 13.) 
he would not reverse it, even at the urgent request of his queen, (Esther 
viii, 5;) but he issued another edict in which he granted the Jews permis- 
sion "to gather themselves together, and to stand for their life." Esther 
viii, 11. Thus the first irreversible edict was completely neutralized by 
another just as irreversible as itself; and the king continued to act his part 
as a character but little short of divinity : infallible, immutable, and wholly 
free from the weakness of repentance ! 



16 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Hosea. 



HOSEA. 

597.— DIVINATION BY RODS. 

IV, 12. My people ask counsel at their stocks, and their staff 
deelareth unto them. 

Some commentators suppose that two distinct classes of divination are 
here referred to, represented by the words " stocks " and " staff." If this 
be so, the former would probably allude to the consultation of teraphim. 
See note on Gen. xxxi, 19. If but one mode of divination be intended, it is 
more definitely indicated by the latter word "staff," and doubtless refers to 
rhabdoirancy, or divination by rods. According to Cyril of Alexandria, this 
custom had its origin among the Chaldeans. It was also practiced by the 
Scythians, Persians, Assyrians, and Arabians. In more recent times it has 
been found among the Chinese, the Africans, and the New Zealanders. 
Henderson, in his Commentary on Ebsea, suggests that the Runic wands of 
the Scandinavian nations, on which were inscribed mysterious characters, 
and which were used for magical purposes, originated in this custom. 
Traces of it may also be found in England and in America in the occa- 
sional u^e of willow rods for discovering hidden treasure, or for finding 
mines of gold or silver, or wells of petroleum. 

There were various methods of using the rods in divination, the mode 
differing in different countries. Herodotus states that, among the Scythians, 
the soothsayer brought a large bundle of rods and laid it on the ground. 
Then, while muttering over his prophecy, he untied the bundle and placed 
each wand in a position by itself, after which he gathered the rods together 
and tied them up again into a bundle. A divine power was supposed to 
rest in the rods, and to communicate wisdom to the magician. The Scyth- 
ians used willow sticks, the Persian Magi used tamarisk, and carried the 
magical bundle with them on all occasions of ceremony. The rods were of 
different length, and varied in number, three, five, seven, or nine, an odd 
number in every instance. 

Another mode of using the rods was for the magician to hold one of them 
in his hand while asking his questions, and then to stoop toward, the ground 
as if to get an answer from some invisible source. This answer was always 
inaudible, and was supposed to be made known to the magician in spirit. 
Sometimes he leaned on the staff while making his consultations. 

At other times the person consulting measured the rod by spans, or by 
the length of his finger, saying as he measured, -' I will go," or " I will not 
go;" or else, "I will do," or ''I will not do; " varying the phrase to 
suit the circumstances. In the way that the last span indicated, so he 
decided. 



Hosea.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 317 

Some used this method of divination by taking a rod which was peeled on 
one side and throwing it at a distance. As the one or the other side fell 
uppermost, so the decision was made. In the Abbott Collection of Egyptian 
Antiquities are seven pieces of wood, which were found in a tomb at Sak- 
karah. Each stick is peeled in the manner above stated. Mr. Abbott sup- 
posed them to have been used by children in some ancient game, similar to 
one now played by the young Egyptians. The sticks are tossed in the air, 
:»nd according to the way in which they fall the game is won or lost. These 
aocient sticks may, however, have been used for divination, and the modern 
game may thus have had its origin. Lane describes a game very common 
among the lower classes of Egyptians in which sticks are thrown, one side 
white and the other black. The game is called " tab." — See Modern Egyp- 
tians, vol. ii, pp. 59, 63. 

598.— SNARES FOR BIRDS. 
VII, 12. When they shall go, I -will spread my net upon them ; 
I will bring them down as the fowls of the heaven. 

Resheth, "net," in this passage refers evidently to a net which was used 
to catch birds in the air. How it differed from other nets we are unable to 
say, and in what manner it was employed we can only surmise. From the 
way in which the word is used in Ezek. xii, 13; xvii, 20; xix. 8; xxxii, 3, 
the resheth is supposed to have been used to throw over animals walking on 
the earth, as well as to catch the inhabitants of the air. Jennings (in 
Kitto's Cyclopedia, article "Fowling'') intimates that the only use of this 
net was that represented in the texts quoted; but from other passages it is 
clear that the reslteth was used also as a snare for the feet. See Job xviii, 8; 
Psa. ix, 15; xxxi, 4; lvii, 6; cxl, 5. 

For other modes of snaring birds, see note on Psa. xci, 3. 

599.— THE YOKE. 

XI, 4. I drew them with cords of a man, with bands of love : 
and I was to them as they that take off the yoke on their 
jaws, and I laid meat unto them. 

This is an agricultural simile, and refers to the custom of raising the yoke 
from the neck and cheeks of the oxen so that they can more readily eat their 
food. Henderson says: "The ol, yoke, not only included the piece of wood 
on the neck by which the animal was fastened to the pole, but also the 
whole of the harness about the head which was connected with it. The 
yokes used in the East are very heavy, and press so much upon the animals 
that they are unable to bend their necks." — Commentary in loco. 

Compare this statement with what Jesus says about his yoke in Matthew 
xi, 28-30. 

20 



318 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Hosea. 

600.— THE CHIMNEY. 
XIII, 3. As the smoke out of the chimney. 

This rendering conveys a wrong impression, since chimneys are compar- 
atively a modern invention, and were entirely unknown to the Hebrews. In 
an Oriental dwelling the openings which let in the light are the same that 
let out the smoke; though it is said that in some houses there are, in addi- 
tion to the lattice windows, holes near the ceiling specially designed 
for the escape of smoke. The fire being made on the ' : hearth " in the 
middle of the floor, (see the note on Jer. xxxvi, 22,) the smoke makes 
its way upward through the room and gets out through such apertures as 
it can find, usually the windows. Arubbah, here rendered " chimney," is 
in other places translated " window." It would be much more correct to 
read this text, " as the smoke out of the window," remembering meanwhile 
that the window is different from the kind we are accustomed to see. See 
note on Judges v, 28. 



A MOS. 



601.— WORTHLESSNESS. 
II, 6. They sold, the righteous for silver, and the poor for a 
pair of shoes. See also chap, viii, 6. 

Naal may be rendered either " shoe " or " sandal." From the form of ex- 
pression here used the meanest, cheapest kind of sandal is evidently meant ; 
the poor debtor was sold into i-lavery because he could not pay for so small 
a matter as a pair of sandals. A similar mode of speech is noticed in India 
at the present day. "When a person wishes to insult another in reference 
to the price of any article he says, ' I will give you my sandals for it.' 
' That fellow is not worth the value of my sandals.' " — Roberts, Oriental 
Ilktstrations, p. 504. 

See further note on Matt, iii, 11 ; and for a description of sandals, see note 
on Acts xii, 8. 

602.— IDOLATROUS CUSTOMS. 
II, 8. They lay themselves down upon clothes laid to pledge 
by every altar, and they drink the wine of the condemned in 
the house of their god. 

Henderson's translation gives the sense of the passage more clearly 
than the authorized version. He renders it : " They stretch themselves 
upon pledged garments close to every altar, aud drink the wine of the 



Amos.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 319 

amerced in the house of their gods." The text refers to the unjust habits 
and to the idolatrous practices of the backslidden Israelites, especially of those 
in authority. They took money which they had exacted by the imposition of 
fines, which were in all probability fixed at an amount higher than justice 
demanded, and with it purchased wine, which is therefore called " the wine 
of the amerced." This wine they drank in heathen temples. In addition 
to this they took from the poor as a pledge for debts their outer garments, 
which were their covering through the night as well as during the day. 
Instead of returning these at sun-down, as the law required, (Deut. xxiv, 12 ; 
see also the note on that text,) they kept them all night, and stretched them- 
selves upon them in the heathen temples. This stretching may refer either 
to the reclining at the idolatrous feasts, or to the custom, sometimes practiced 
among the heathen, of sleeping near the altars of their gods, that they 
might obtain communications in dreams. 

Keil translates the verse : " And they stretch themselves upon pawned 
clothes by every altar, and they drink the wine of the punished in the house 
of their G-od." He does not believe that the prophet refers to feasts in idola- 
trous temples, but in drinking carousals which were held in the house of 
•God. He says that " Amos had in his mind the sacred places in Bethel 
and Dan, in which the Israelites worshiped Jehovah as their God under the 
symbol of an ox, {calf") — Commentary in loco. 



603.— DAMASK COVERING. 
Ill, 12. So shall the children of Israel be taken out that dwell 
in Samaria in the corner of a bed, and in Damascus in a 
couch. 

Instead of "Damascus," some commentators read "damask," making the 
word refer to the rich silk-woven stuff with raised figures of flowers and 
other patterns, and not to the place where it was made, and whence it derived 
its name. Thus the text would read, "a damask couch," or "a couch of 
damask." The allusion here is to the luxurious couches which are on the 
divan in Eastern houses, for a description of which see note on 2 Kings i, 4. 
The corner of the divan is the most convenient place for repose, and is con- 
sidered the place of honor. Hackett says : " A divan, which I saw in the 
palace of the late Mohammed Ali at Alexandria, furnishes an apt commen- 
tary on this verse. It was arranged, after the Oriental fashion, along the 
entire side of the room. It was capable of seating a great number of per- 
sons. A covering of the richest damask silk was spread over it, and hung 
in folds over the outward edge; while the magnificent cushions, adorned 
with threads of gold at the corners, distinguished those places above the 
others as the seats of special honor." — Scripture Illustrations, p. 61. 



320 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Amos. 



604.— PALACES. 
Ill, 15. And I will smite the winter- house with the summer- 
house ; and. the houses of ivory shall perish. 

1. The expressions " winter-house " and " summer-house " do not of ne- 
cessity imply two separate houses, but may mean separate suites of apart- 
ments in the same house. Thomson says : " Such language is easily under- 
stood by an Oriental. In common parlance, the lower apartments are simply 
eloeit — the house; the upper is the 'alliyeh, which is the summer-house. 
Every respectable dwelling has both, and they are familiarly called beit 
shetawy and beit seify — winter and summer house. If these are on the same 
story, then the external and airy apartment is the summer-house, and that 
for winter is the interior and more sheltered room. It is rare to meet a 
family that has an entirely separate dwelling for summer." — The Land and 
the Book, vol. i, p. 478. It may have been in the interior apartment that 
Jehoiakim sat when Jehudi read the roll in Lis presence. See Jer. xxxvi, 22. 
2. By " houses of ivory " we are not to understand houses built of that 
material, but houses richly ornamented with it. The ancients decorated the 
ceilings, doors, and panels of their rooms with ivory. It was in this way 
that Ahab is said to have built an " ivory house." 1 Kings xxii, 39. Such 
houses are the " ivory palaces " mentioned in Psa. xlv, 8. 

605.— CHIUN. 

V, 2G. Ye have borne the tabernacle of your Moloeh and 
Chiun your images, the star of your god, which ye made to 
yourselves. 

1. For a description of Moloch, see note on Lev. xviii, 21. 

2. The majority of those interpreters who suppose Chiun to be a proper 
name take it to mean the planet Saturn. The Septuagint has 'Paicpdv, 
which afterward became corrupted to 'Peiupdv, and is so used by Stephen in 
Acts vii, 43. Some have assumed that 'Vat<pdv was an Egyptian name of 
the planet Saturn, but others have denied this. Some commentators suppose 
that the word is not a proper name, but merely signifies a statue, an idol, or 
a pedestal on which an idol might be placed. 

606.— BEDS OF IVORY. 

VI, 4. That lie upon beds of ivory, and stretch themselves 
upon their couches. 

The divan on which the beds were spread, or the frames on which they 
rested, were inlaid and ornamented with ivory. Compare the note on 
"homes of ivory," Amos iii, 15. 



Amos.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 321 



607.— HORSES, UNSHOD. 

VI, 12. Shall horses run upon the rock ? 

This question has no pertinence in our times, since, by reason of being shod 
with iron, our horses do not injure their hoofs by running upon the rock. 
Horse-shoeing was, however, unknown to the Hebrews, and is of compara- 
tively modern introduction. Bishop Lowth states that the shoes of leather 
and of iron mentioned by Greek and Roman writers, as well as the silver 
and the gold shoes with which Nero and Poppea shod their mules, inclosed 
the whole hoof as in a case, or as a shoe does a man's foot, and were bound 
or tied on, and even these were exceptional cases. In ordinary instances no 
shoes of any kind were used. We can thus see how, with hoofs unpro- 
tected, the horses could not be expected to run upon a rock. No doubt 
Amos had this in mind. Isaiah also, in describing the character of the 
army that should come with destructive judgments upon Judah, says that 
" their horses' hoofs shall be counted like flint." Isa. v, 2S. A hard hoof 
must have been a very desirable qualit}- in a horse, when the art of pro- 
tecting the foot with iron shoes was unkaown. 

608.— CULTIVATION OF FIGS. 

VII, 14. A gatherer of sycamore fruit. 

This shows his humble position, since none but the poorest cultivate or 
use this fruit. Henderson, speaking of the word boles, "gatherer," says: 
" The particular mode in which the ancients cultivated fig-trees the LXX 
appear to have had in their eye when they rendered it by kvi&v, a nijjper 
or scratcher; for we are informed by Theophrastus that iron nails or prongs 
were employed to make incisions or scratches in the tree, that, by letting out 
some of the sap, the fruit might be ripened." — Commentary in loco. Gesenius 
sustains this rendering of the Septuagint, but Keil dissents. He says that 
nipping cannot be shown to be implied by the word boles, and further declares 
that the eating, and not the cultivation, of the fruit is what is meant. 

609.— THE SIEVE. 
IX, 9. I will sift the house of Israel among all nations, like as 
corn is sifted, in a sieve. 

A part of the process of winnowing grain consisted in the use of a sieve, 
by which means the particles of earth, and other impurities which clung to 
the corn during the process of threshing, were separated from the grain. In 
addition to this text, reference is figuratively made to the sieve in Isa. 
xxx, 28, and Luke xxii, 31. See also note on Ruth iii, 2, and on Matt, 
iii, 12. 



322 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Jonah. 



JONAH. 

610.— CALLING ON THE GODS. 
I, 5. Then the mariners were afraid, axid cried every man 
unto his god. 

As these sailors were probably PheniciaDS from different places, they 
worshiped different gods. Every man may have had his own special 
deity to whom he prayed when in trouble. Roberts found illustra- 
tions of this text on more than one occasion when in a storm at sea in a 
vessel with a heathen crew: "No sooner does danger appear than one 
begins to beat his head and cry aloud, ' Siva, Siva ! ' another beats his 
breast and piteously shrieks forth, ' Yishnoo! ' and a third strikes his thigh 
and shouts out with all his might. 'Yaruna!'" — Oriental Illustrations, 
p. 513. 

611.— SAILORS' SUPERSTITIONS. 
* I, 7. Come, and let us east lots, that we may know for whose 
cause this evil is upon us. 

1. On the subject of lots, see note on Prov. xviii, 18. 

2. It was a common opinion among sailors that the misconduct of one per- 
son might bring disaster on the whole company. This notion still prevails, 
not only among heathen mariners, but to some extent among sailors belong- 
ing to Christian nations, many of whom have strangely superstitious ideas. 
Rosenmuller says, in illustration of this ancient opinion: "Thus, (according 
to Cicero, On the Nature of the Gods, iii, 37,) the sailors considered Diagoras 
of Melos the cause of the storm which overtook them because he was an 
atheist, and had betrayed the Eleusinian mysteries." — Morgenland, vol. iv, 
p. 398. ___^^^_ 

M I C A H. 

612.— THE COVERED LIP. 

Ill, 7. Then shall the seers be ashamed, and the diviners 
confounded : yea, they shall all cover their lips ; for there is no 
answer of God. 

The margin has " upper lip," that is, the lip-beard or mustache, as the 
word sapham is rendered by Gesenius and others. The Hebrews held the 
beard in high estimation as a mark of manliness. To cover the lip, and thus 
conceal the beard growing there, was a sign of sorrow or of mourning. 

Thus, in the text, Micah represents the prophets as mourning because 
God refuses to reveal himself to them : " they shall all cover their lips." 
Thus also the leper was required to cover his upper lip. Lev. xiii, 45. An 
allusion to this custom is likewise made in Ezek. xxiv, 17, 22. 



Micah.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



323 



613.— SITTING IN THE SHADE. 
IV, 4. They shall sit every man under his vine, and. under 
his fig-tree ; and none shall make them afraid. 

This is a figurative expression used to denote a state of national peace 
and domestic happiness. See also 1 Kings iv, 25, and Zech. iii, 10. It is 
based on the custom of seeking a pleasant shade under fig-trees and vines. 
In the East the grape-vine is more extensively used for ornament and shade 
than the woodbine or ivy in our own country. The branches are frequently 
trained to run over a trellis in the court-yard of the house. The fig-tree, 
by its thick branches and broad leaf, makes a very agreeable natural shade. 
Nathanael was under a fi<r-tree enjoying its shade, and engaged probably in 
pious meditation, when Philip found him and brought him to Jesus. John 
i. 48. 



N A H U M. 

614.— NINEVITE CONVIVIALITY. 
I, 10. While they are drunken as drunkards. 

Henderson's translation is more graphic: "thoroughly soaked with their 
wine." The prophet here has reference to the drinking habits of the Nlne- 




\fi8YRIA\ T DniNKINfi-SCEN-R. 



324 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Nahum, 



vites, of which the monuments give abundant illustration. Rawlinson says : 
"In the banquet-scenes of the sculptures it is drinking, and not eating. 
that is represented. Attendants dip the wine-cups into a huge bowl or 
vase, which stands on the ground and reaches as high as a man's chest, and 
carry them full of liquor to the guests, who straightway fall to a carouse. 
. . . Every guest holds in his right hand a wine-cup of a most elegant shape, the 
lower part modeled into the form of a lion's head, from which the cup itself 
rises in a graceful curve. They all raise their cups to a level with their 
heads, and look as if they were either pledging each other or else one and 
all drinking the same toast.'' — Five Great Monarchies, vol. i, pp. 519, 580. 

615.— ASSYRIAN WARRIORS. 
II, 3. The shield of his mighty men is made red, the valiant 
men are in scarlet: the chariots shall be with flaming torches 
in the day of his preparation, and the fir-trees shall be terribly 
shaken. 

This is a vivid description of ancient Assyrian warriors and their equip- 
ments. 

1. The shields may have been reddened with paint, or with the copper 
with which they were overlaid. 

2. The fio-hting; costume of ancient warriors was of a blood-red color. It 




128.— Assyrian Wab-chabiot of the Eably Peeiod. (Nmbttd.) 

is said that one object of this was to conceal from the enemy the blood of 
their wounds, the sight of which might inspire them with new courage and 
hope. 

3. By the " naming torches " of the chariots, Michaelis, Ewald, Gesenius, 
and others, suppose to be meant the fakes or scythes which were fastened 



Nahum.] BIBLE MANNERS AM) CUSTOMS. 325 

to the axle, and turned repeatedly with every revolution of the wheel. Hen- 
derson accordingly renders esh-peladoth, "fiery scythes." The fire of these 
scythes would be coruscations produced by their excessive brightness and 
the rapidity of their motion. ' Keil, however, (in his Commerdai*y ,) objects to 
this interpretation on the ground that " scythe-chariots were first introduced 
by Cyrus, and were unknown before his time to the Medes, the Assyrians, 
the Arabians, and also to the ancient Egyptians." He supposes peladoth 
to refer to the steel coverings of the Assyrian war-chariots, and appends 
the following interesting note from Strauss : " The chariots of the Assyrians, 
as we see them on the monuments, glare with shining things made either 
of iron or steel, battle-axes, bows, arrows, and shields, and all kinds of 
weapons ; the horses are also ornamented with crowns and red fringes, and 
even the poles of the carriages are made resplendent with shining suns and 
moons; add to these the soldiers in armor riding in their chariots, and it 
could not but be the case that, when illumined by the rays of the sun above 
them, they would have all the appearance of flames as they flew hither and 
thither with great celerity." (See verse 4, I. c.) 

4. By the "fir-trees," which were to be "terribly shaken," are probably 
meant the spears, darts, and lances, which had handles made of the wood of 
the cypress. 

616.— TEMPERING CLAY. 
Ill, 14 Go into clay, and. tread the mortar. 

This is an allusion to the ancient method of tempering the clay for mak- 
ing bricks. It was done by the feet of the laborer, and was very severe and 
fatiguing labor. Tit, "clay," may also be rendered " mire ; " and chomer, 
" mortar," is not to be understood here in the sense of a cement for bricks, 
but rather of clay. Henderson accordingly translates the passage, " Enter 
the mire, and tread the clay." Keil lias, "Tread in the mire, and stamp the 
clay." Potter's clay was tempered in a similar way. " He shall come upon 
princes as upon mortar, and as the potter treadeth clay." Isa. xli, 25. 



HABAKKUK. 

617.— WORSHIP OF WEAPONS. 
1, 16. They sacrifice unto their net, and burn incense unto 
their drag. 

These fishing implements are used figuratively to represent the weapons 
of war by means of which the Chaldeans designed to take the Jews. It 



326 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Habakkuk. 

was customary among some ancient nations to offer sacrifices to tbeir weap- 
ons. The ScythiaDS offered sacrifices to a sword which, was set up as a sym- 
bol of Mars. Herodotus says: " Yearly sacrifices of cattle and of horses are 
made to it, and more victims are offered thus than to all the rest of their 
gods." — Book iv, chap. lxii. Grote, in speaking of the same people, says: " The 
Sword, in the literal sense of the word, was their chief god — an iron 
scimitar solemnly elevated upon a wide and lofty platform, which was sup 
ported on masses of faggots piled underneath — to whom .sheep, horses, and 
a portion of their prisoners taken in war, were offered up in sacrifice." 
— History of Greece, part ii, chap. xvii. The Hindus, to this day, make 
offerings to their fishing tackle, to their weapons, and to their tools of various 
kinds. 

618.— THE USE OF WOOD IN WALLS. 
II, 11. For trie stone shall cry out of the wall, and the beam 
out of the timber shall answer it. 

Kaphis, " beam," is supposed by some to be a cross-beam for binding to- 
gether the walls of a building. Jerome says it is " the beam which is 
placed in the middle of any building to hold the walls together, and is gener- 
ally called Ljidv-uGiq by the Greeks." Henderson, however, objects to this 
rendering. He says : " That it was not the wood itself is evident from the 
following : from, or out of the woody He prefers the interpretation given by 
the Mishna, and followed by some Jewish writers. According to these 
kaphis signifies a half brick. Rashi, the celebrated commentator and 
Talmudist, explains it to be "half a brick, which is usually laid between two 
layers of wood." 

There are numerous evidences to show that ancient architects used wood 
to unite and bind walls, and it may have been some such custom to which 
the prophet refers in the text. 

619.— SILENCE. 

II, 20. But the Lord, is in his holy temple : let all the earth 
keep silence before him. 

There may be a reference here to the profound and impressive silence 
which prevails in Oriental courts among the guards and officers who attend 
upon royal personages. 

620.— THE NAKED BOW. 

III, 9. Thy bow was made quite naked. 

The bow was often kept in a case made of leather or of cloth. To make 
it "naked " meant to take it out of its case in order to use it. The expres- 
sion signifies a preparation for war, and is of the same meaning as " uncov- 
ering the shield." See note on Isa. xxii, 6. 



Zephaniah.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 327 



ZEPH AN I AH. 

621.— THE CHEMARIM. 
I, 4. I will cut off the remnant of Baal from this place, and. 
the name of the Chemarim with the priests. 

The word chemarim, here untranslated, occurs also in 2 Kings xxiii, 5, 
where it is rendered "idolatrous priests;" and in Hosea x, 5, where it is 
rendered "priests." Tt signifies the priests of idolatrous worship. Keil 
does not include in the term the priests of Baal, but limits its application to 
" the priests appointed by the Kings of Judah for the worship of the high 
places and the idolatrous worship of Jehovah." — Commentary in loco. Gese- 
nius thinks it is derived from kamar, to be burned, to be sad, and that it refers 
to the black garments worn by priests. Some, however, think this idea too 
modern for adoption. Keil says that this derivation "is decidedly opposed by 
the fact, that neither the priests of the idols nor of the high places were 
ascetics or monks, and in ancient times the priests from India to Gaul wore 
robes of a white, and if possible of a brilliant white, color. Compare Bahr's 
Symbol, ii, p. 87, f, and the works there quoted." — Commentary on 2 Kings 
xxiii, 5. 



Z ECH A R I AH. 

622.— THE MONTH SEBAT. 
I, 7. The eleventh month, which is the month Sebat. 
Sebat corresponds very nearly to our month of February. 

623— HEAVY STONES. 
XII, 8. And. in that day will I make Jerusalem a burdensome 
stone for all people : all that burden themselves with it shall 
be cut in pieces. 

Jerome supposes an allusion here to a custom common in Judea in his day, 
and which he thinks was known in the time of Zechariah. The young men 
were in the habit of lifting heavy stones for exercise, and for a display of 
strength. They lifted them to various heights, according to the weight of the 
stones and their own strength: to the knees, the breast, the top of the head, 
and even above the head, at arms' length. Jerusalem is declared by the 
prophets to be such a "burdensome stone" that whosoever should under- 
take to lift it would be destroyed by its weight. 

Most commentators have followed Jerome's interpretation, though some 
prefer to think that the reference is made merely to a heavy stone used in 
building: 



328 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Zechariah. 



624.— SEPARATION OF THE SEXES. 
XIL 12. And the land shall mourn, every family apart ; the 
family of the house of David apart, and their wives apart. 

According to the Jewish, custom, not only did the men and women dwell 
in separate apartments, but they also worshiped separately. In this text, the 
trouble that is to come upon the land is so great that every family shall be 
in mourning, the men mourning by themselves, and the women in like man- 
ner lamenting together. 

625.— BELLS FOR HORSES. 
XIV, 20. In that day shall there be upon the bells of the 
horses, Holiness unto the Lord. 

It was quite common among ancient nations to have bells hung around 
the necks of horses, both by way of ornament and to accustom the war-horses 
to noise. At the present time bells are used in caravans for horses and 




129.— Head op a Chabiot-horse, showing Collar with Bells attached. (KoYirajiK.) 
camels ; sometimes being strung around the legs, as well as suspended from 
the neck. They are designed, not only for ornament, but also to encourage 
the animals by their sound, to frighten beasts of prey, and to keep the 
caravan together. 

Some suppose that inetsilloth, " bells," were small pieces of metal resem- 
bling cymbals, which made a tinkling noise by collision as the horses 
moved. 



Malachi.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



329 




MALACHI. 

626.— FULLING. 

Ill, 2. He is like a refiner's fire, and like fullers' soap. 

The precise character of all the articles used by the ancient fuller! 
unknown. They bad 
mineral alkali in niter, 
to which reference is 
made in Prov. xxv, 20, 
and Jer. ii, 22. They 
obtained vegetable al- 
kali, as the Arabs do 
at the present time, 
from the ashes of 

some plants and from _ 1 ULB1181111illllllliiiiiilii^lill 
the juices of others. 130. — Ancient Egyptian Fullers at Work. 

They likewise used, for cleansing their cloth, urine and chalk, and bean- 
meal mixed with water. 

The cloths are thought to have been first trodden by the feet. They were 
also rubbed with the knuckles. A subsequent operation probably consisted 
in rubbing the cloth on an inclined plane, after the manner still followed in 
the East, and one which was common among the ancient Egyptians. 

627.— THE BOOK OF REMEMBRANCE. 
Ill, 16. A book of remembrance was written before him for 
them that feared the Lord, and that thought upon his name. 

The metaphor is supposed to be taken from the ancient Persian custom cf 
keeping a record of the names and deeds of any who had rendered special 
service to the king. It was in this way that the faithfulness of Mordecai in 
revealiug to Ahasuerus the plot against his life was recorded and filed 
among the records of the court. See Esther vi, 1, 2. 



628.— TREATMENT OF ENEMIES. 
IV, 3. And ye shall tread down the wicked ; for they shall 
be ashes under the soles of your feet. 

Chardin supposes that allusion is here made to the mode of making mor- 
tar in the East. One kind is made of a mixture of sand, ashes, and lime, 
which ingredients are mixed by being trodden. See note on Lev. xiv, 42, 
and also on Nahum iii, 14. There is also reference to the custom of putting 
the feet on conquered enemies, for an account of which see note on 1 Cor. 
xv. 25. 



330 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 



MATTHEW. 

629.— ESPOUSALS. 

I, 18. Mary was espoused, to Joseph. 

Espousal among the Hebrews was something more than what a mere 
marriage engagement is with us. It was considered the beginning of mar- 
riage, was as legally binding as marriage itself, and could not be broken off 
save by a bill of divorce. Hence we find that Joseph is called the " hus- 
band " of Mary, (verse 19.) The betrothal was usually determined by the 
parents or brothers of the parties, and the engagement was made between a 
friend or legal representative of the bridegroom and the father of the bride. 
The espousals were made very early in life, though marriage did not take 
place before the bride was twelve years old. Even when the age was suit- 
able, the marriage was not consummated for some time after the betrothal. 
See Judges xiv, 8. At least a year, or sometimes more, elapsed between 
the betrothal and the marriage of a maiden, to give time for preparing her 
outfit. In case of a widow marriage might take place thirty days after 
espousal. The betrothal was usually accompanied by a feast in the house 
of the bride. 

The engagement, to be binding, must be either by written contract, or by 
the reception of presents by the bride from the bridegroom. When Abra- 
ham's servant received the consent of Rebekah's father and brother to make 
her the wife of his master's son, he presented to the maiden valuable gifts. 
See Gen. xxiv, 53. The reception of these made the contract binding. The 
bride remained at her father's house until the time of marriage, when the 
bridegroom came after her. This custom is referred to in Deut xx, 1. 
Meanwhile communication between her and the bridegroom was kept up 
by means of the " friend of the bridegroom." See note on John hi, 29. " 

630.— THE MAGI. 

II, 1. Now when Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in 
the days of Herod the king, behold, there eame wise men 
from the East to Jerusalem. 

These " wise men," or, more properly, magi, (udyoi,) belonged to a 
numerous and influential order of men. The origin of Magism is involved 
in obscurity. It is thought to have had its beginning amoDg either the 
Chaldeans or the Assyrians ; more probably among the former. Starting in 
Chaldea, it would naturally make its way to Assyria, Media, and the adjoin- 
ing countries. From Media it was brought into Persia, where it exerted a 
powerful influence in modifying the ancient religious faith of the people. 
Some profess to trace the Magian doctrines to Abraham, who, it is said, if he 



Matthew.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



331 




131. — Ciialdean Diviner. 



did not originate them, at least purified them from the errors of Zabaism. 
See note on Deut. iv, 19. After Abraham's time they became corrupted, 
and were again purified by Zoroaster, who is 
supposed to have been a descendant of the 
prophet Daniel. 

We find in the Old Testament several ref- 
erences to the Magi. In Jer. xxxix, 3, 13, Ner- 
gal-sharezer is said to have been the Rab-mag, 
that is, the chief of the Magi. His name is sup- 
posed to be recorded in the Babylonian inscrip- 
tions, where mention is made of Ntrgalrshar-vzur, 
who is styled Rabu-emga or Rob mag. The chak- 
amim, or " wise men," referred to in Jer. 1, 35, 
were probably Magi. (^ 

In Daniel's time the Magi were very prominent 
in Babylon. In Dan. ii, 2, "magicians," '• astrolo- 
gers," "sorcerers," and "Chaldeans" are men- 
tioned ; while in the twenty-seventh verse of the 
same chapter "soothsayers" are named. These 
are represented by five different words in the 
original, and some writers think that five dis- 
tinct classes of Magi are here referred to. It is difficult, however, at this 
late day to specify the difference between them, though the attempt has 
some ; imes been made. 

It has been supposed from Dan. v, 11, compared with ii, 48, and iv, 9, 
that Daniel himself was made a member of the Magian order, and its chief; 
but the expressions there used may only mean that the king regarded him 
as superior to all the magicians in his dominion, and as having authority 
over them. In any case, we cannot believe that Daniel embraced any 
theological notions of the Magi which were in opposition to Hebrew 
orthodoxy. 

An account of the worship practiced by the Magi of Media will give us 
some idea of the peculiarities of the order. Rawlinson says: " Magism was 
essentially the worship of the elements, the recognition of fire, air, earth, 
and water as the only proper objects of human reverence. The Magi held 
no personal gods, and, therefore, naturally rejected temples, shrines, and 
images, as tending to encourage the notion that gods existed of a like nature 
with man; that is, possessing personality — living and intelligent beings. 
Theirs was a nature worship, but a nature worship of a very peculiar kind. 
They did not place gods over the different parts of nature, like the Greeks ; 
they did not even personify the powers of nature, like the Hindoos ; they 
paid their devotion to the actual material things themselves. Fire, as the 



332 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

most subtle and ethereal principle, and again as the most powerful agent, 
attracted their highest regards; and on their fire-altars the sacred flame, 
generally said to have been kindled from heaven, was kept burning uninter- 
rupted from year to year and from age to age by bands of priests, whose 
special duty it was to see that the sacred spark was never extinguished." 
— Five Ancient Monarchies, vol. ii, p. 346. 

The Magians were a priestly caste, and the office is supposed to have been 
hereditary. They uttered prophec'es, explained omens, interpreted dreams, 
and practiced rhabdomancy or divination by rods. See note on Hosea iv, 12. 
Their notion of the peculiar sanctity of the so-called elements led to a singular 
mode of disposing of the bodies of the dead. See note on Psa. lxxix, 2. 

In Persia they became a powerful body under the guide of Zoroaster, and 
were divided into three classes : Herbeds, or disciples ; Mobeds, or masters ; 
and Deslur-mobeds, or perfect masters. After a time the term Magi became 
more extended in its meaning. As the Magi were men of learning, devoting 
special attention to astronomy and the natural sciences, it happened that, 
after the lapse of years, men who became celebrated for learning were called 
Magi, whether belonging to the priestly order or not. So, as the Magi 
joined to the pursuits of science the arts of the soothsayer, in process of 
time mere conjurors who had no scientific knowledge were called Magi. 
Simon Magus (Acts viii, 9) and Bar-Jesus or Elymas (Acts xiii, 6, 8) were 
men of this sort. 

The Magi who came to visit the infant Saviour were no doubt of the 
better class. The idea, however, that they were kings and three in number 
is mere imagination, and unsusceptible of proof. They were evidently 
skilled in astronomical knowledge, and were earnest seekers after the new- 
born king. Where they came from is a disputed question. Various writers 
have suggested that they were Babylonians, Arabians, Persians, Bactrians, 
Parthians, or even Brahmins lrom India. Matthew says they were from 
"the East," which was a geographical term of very elastic meaning. 

One of the best dissertations on this subject is a mouograph by Dr. 
Upham,* who claims a Persian nationality for these Magi. His opinion is 
indorsed by some of the best recent biblical critics. 

631.— THE STAR OF THE KING. 
II, 2. Where is he that is born King of the Jews? for we 
have seen his star in the east, and. ara eome to worship him. 

When the preparations were making for the coronation of Solyman III. as 
king of Persia in 1666, the astrologers had very important duties assigned 
them, according to the custom of their country. Sir John Chardin, who was 

* The Wise Men : Who they Were; and How they Came to Jerusalem. By Francis W. 
Upham, LL.D. New York, 1873. 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 333 

present, says that these astrologers were appointed (i to observe the lucky 
hour, according to the position of the stars, for the performance of this 
weighty ceremony." — Coronation of Svlyman III., p. 36. 

The wise men mentioned in the text may have supposed, from what they 
had seen of the star, that it was a favorable time for the coronation of the 
new-born King, and hence they came to worship him. 

632.— ROUGH GARMENTS— LOCUST FOOD. 
IH, 4. The same John had. his raiment of camel's hair, 
and a leathern girdle about his loins ; and his meat was 
locusts and wild honey. See also Mark i, 6. 

1. The "raiment of camel's hair" was a coarse, rough outer garment, such 
as is still worn by the Arabs. It is made of the thin coarse hair of the 
camel. Some think, because Elijah is called " a hairy man" in 2 Kings i, 8, 
that he wore a garment of this sort. A rough garment seems to have 
been characteristic of a prophet. See Zech. xiii, 4. 

2. For a description of the girdle, see note on 1 Kings xviii, 46. 

3. With many of the Bedawiu on the frontiers locusts are still an article 
of food, though none but the poorest eat them. They are considered a very 
inferior sort of food. They are salted and dried, and eaten with butter or 
with wild honey. The fact that John ate this kind of food illustrates the ex- 
treme poverty of the forerunner of Christ, and shows the destitution he 
suffered by living in the wilderness far away from the haunts of men. 

633.— CARRYING SANDALS. 
Ill, 11. He that eometh after me is mightier than I, whose 
shoes I am not worthy to bear. 

To carry the master's sandals was considered the most menial duty that 
could be performed. On entering a house the sandals are taken off by a 
servant, who takes care of them, and brings them again when needed. In 
India it is customary for a servant to accompany his master when he walks 
out. If the master desires to walk barefoot on the soft grass or the smooth 
ground the servant removes the sandals and carries them in his hand. 
John felt himself unworthy to do for Christ even the meanest work of a 
servant. 

See also note on John i. 27. 

631.— WINNOWING GRAIN. 
Ill, 12. Whose fan is in his hand, and he will thoroughly 
purge his floor, and gather his wheat into the garner ; but he 
will burn up the chaff with unquenchable fire. See also Luke 
iii, 17. 

The grain in the East is threshed in the open air, (see note on Gen. 1, 10.) 
by being trampled under the feet of oxen or horses, (see note on Dent. 

21 



334 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

xxv, 4,) or by means of instruments, as described in tie note on Tsa. 
xxviii, 27, 28. By these processes the straw becomes very much broken ; 
and, to separate the grain from the hulls and straw the mingled mass is 
thrown against the wind by means of a wooden shovel, or else a wooden 
fork, having sometimes two prongs and sometimes three, and a handle three 
or four feet long. This is the ''fan " alluded to in a number of Scripture 
passages. It is usually employed in the evening. See note on Ruth hi, 2. 
The wind carries the chaff away, while the grain falls to the ground. The 
grain is sometimes sifted after the winnowing. See note on Amos ix, 9. 
The chaff is burned and the grain is stored, either in subterranean granaries 
(see note on Jer. xli, 8) or in barns. See note on Gen. xli, 48. 

The fan is referred to in Tsa. xxx, 24, where it is mentioned in connec- 
tion with the " shovel." The precise difference between the two instruments 
there indicated is not now known. See also Jer. iv, 11; xv, 7; li, 2. The 
scattering of the chaff by the wind after fanning is frequently alluded to 
figuratively. See Job xxi, 18; Psa. i, 4; Isa. xxix, 5; xli, 16; Dan. ii, 35; 
Hos. xiii, 3. 

635.— THE PINNACLE OF THE TEMPLE. 

IV, 5. Then the devil taketh him up into the holy city, and 
setteth him on a pinnacle of the temple. See also Luke iv, 9. 

This is commonly supposed to have been the summit of the royal gallery 
built by Herod within the area of the temple buildings on the edge of the 
Kedron valley. Josephus says of it: "This cloister deserves to be mentioned 
better than any other under the sun ; for, while the valley was very deep, 
and its bottom could not be seen if you looked from above into the depth, 
this farther vastly high elevation of the cloister stood upon that height, inso- 
much that if any one looked down from the top of the battlements, or down 
both those altitudes, he would be giddy, while his sight could not reach to 
such an immense depth." — Antiquities, Book XV, chap, xi, § 5. The extreme 
distance from the top of the battlement to the bottom of the valley is sup- 
posed to have been about seven hundred feet. See also note on Matt, xxiv, 1 . 

636.— THE SYNAGOGUE. 
IV. 23. Teaching in their synagogues, and preaching the gos- 
pel of the kingdom. See also Mark i, 39 ; Luke iv, 44. 

Jewish writers claim for the synagogue a very remote antiquity, but its 
origin probably dates during the captivity. There were no fixed proportions 
in the building, as there were in the tabernacle and in the temple. When a 
sj-nagogue was to be built the highest ground that could be found in the 
vicinity was selected for the site, and, if possible, the top was erected above 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 335 

the roofs of surrounding buildings. Where this could not be done a tall 
pole was placed on the summit in order to make the building conspicuous. 
Synagogues were often built without roofs. They were also so constructed 
that the worshipers, as they entered and prayed, faced Jerusalem. See note 
on Dan. vi, 10. At the Jerusalem end was the chest or ark which contained 
the book of the law. Toward the middle of the building was a raised plat- 
form, and in the center of the platform was a pulpit. A low partition five or 
six feet high divided the men from the women. 

The leading object of the synagogue was not worship, but instruction 
The temple was " the house of prayer." Matt, xxi, 13. The synagogue was 
never called by that name. Reading and expounding the law was the great 
business of the synagogue ; and, though a liturgical service was connected 
with these, it was subordinate to them. 

The priests had no official standing or privileges in the synagogue, though 
they were always honored when present. They were the hereditary officials 
of the temple, but the officers of the synagogue were, elected either by the 
congregation or by the council. 

The leader of the congregation might ask any suitable person to address 
the assembly. Persons who were known as learned men, or as the expound- 
ers of religious faith, were allowed to speak. Hence in the text and in the 
parallel passages we find Christ publicly speaking in the synagogue. See 
also Matt, xiii, 54; Mark vi, 2; Luke iv, 15; iv, 16-22 ; John xviii, 20. So 
also the apostles on their missionary journey addressed the people in these 
places of public gathering. See Acts xiii, 5, 15; xiv, 1 ; xvii, 10,11; 
xvii, 17 ; xviii, 19. 

637.— SAVORLESS SALT. 
V, 13. If the salt have lost his savor, -wherewith shall it be 
salted ? it is thenceforth good for nothing, but to be east out, 
and to be trodden under foot of men. See also Luke xiv, 34, 35. 

Salt produced by the evaporation of sea- water in hot countries is said some- 
times to lose its saline properties. The same result is also sometimes seen 
in impure rock-salt that has long been exposed to the air. When such is 
the case there can nothing be done with it but to throw it out into the 
highway, where men and beasts trample it down. Dr. Thomson tells of some 
salt which was brought from the marshes of Cyprus by a merchant of Sidon, 
and stored in small houses with earthen floors. " The salt next the ground 
in a few years entirely spoiled. I saw large quantities of it literally thrown 
into the street, to be trodden under foot of men and beasts. It was good for 
nothing." — The Land and the Boole, vol. ii, p. 43. 

Schottgen supposes reference is here made to the bituminous salt from the 
Dead Sea, which, lie says, was strewn over the sacrifices in the temple to 



SS6 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Matthew. 



neutralize the smell of the burning flesh, and when it became spoiled 
by exposure it was cast out upon the walks to prevent slipping in wet 
weather, and was thus literally "trodden under foot of men." 



63§.— LAMP— BUSHEL— LAMP-STAND. 
V, 15. Neither do men light a candle, and put it under a 
bushel, but on a candlestick. See also Mark iv, 21 ; Luke viii, 16; xi, 33. 

1. " Lamp " would be a better word here than " candle," since oil is what 
was used for illuminating purposes in Palestine. Though frequent reference 

is made in Scripture 

, ; fi||||ij.v : , ,,.- to the lamp, no de- 

|,ni|l| scription of it is given. 

Many ancient lamps 
of various shapes and 
material have been 
preserved to the pres- 
ent time, and doubt- 
less give some idea of 
the sort of lamp used 
in our Saviour's time. 
The Egyptian monu- 
ments have also repre- 
sentations of still ear- 
lier lamps, such as 
were probably used by 
the Hebrews. 
The common lamps among the Greeks and Romans were made of clay, 

the more costly ones of bronze, and even sometimes of gold. Some of these 

were very beautiful. Most of the lamps were oval in shape 

and flat on top, on which there were often figures in relief. 

A wick floated in the oil or passed through holes in the lamp. 

The lamps received different names according to the number 

of holes which they had for the wicks. 

See Job xviii, 6; Prov. xxxi, 18; Jer. xxv, 10; Zeph. i, 12; 

Luke xv, 8. See further note on Matt, xxv, 3. 

2. Modtof, "bushel," represents the chief Roman dry-meas- 
ure, the modius. Its capacity is reckoned at nearly one peck, 
English measure. 

3. The candlestick or lamp-stand was as varied in shape and 
quality as the lamp. The rudest sort was to be found some- 
times in houses with mud walls, where, in building up ihe i33_Ancient 
wall, a portion of the clay was suffered to bulge out into the Lamp-Stand. 




132. — Ancient Lamp. 




Mitthaw.] BTBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 337 

room at a suitable height. It was then hollowed; and, when the house was 
finished, the hollow was filled with oil, and a wick was made to float in it. 
This contrivance combined lamp and lamp-stand in one utensil. The ordi- 
nary lamp-stands were made of wood ; the better kinds, of bronze. They 
were of various heights, and some of them of very beautiful form and work- 
manship. The lamp-stand is also referred to in Rev. ii. 5. 

639.— JOT AND TITTLE. 
V, 18. One jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, 
till all be fulfilled. See also Luke xvi, 17. 

There may be allusion here to the great care taken by the copyists of the 
law to secure accuracy even to the smallest letters, or curves or points of 
letters. Twra, "jot," refers to the yodh, i, the smallest letter in the Hebrew 
alphabet; nepaia, "tittle," is an apex or little horn, and refers to the horn-like 
points which are seen on Hebrew letters, for example, 3, -j, j-ji n, *y It is 
worthy of remark that the yodh has one of these points, aud the meaning 
of the text may be, " Not even a yodh, nor the point of a yodh." The text under 
consideration is sometimes cited to prove that, in the time of Christ, copies 
of the law were written in the " square character." 

Sometimes curved extensions resembling horns are attached to the letters 
by the copyists for ornamentation. Prof. Hackett found in one of the syna- 
gogues at Safet a scribe engaged in making a copy of the law. He says : 
'' A more elegant Hebrew manuscript, a more perfect specimen of the calli- 
graphic art, I never saw than that executed by this Jewish amanuensis. 
No printed page could surpass it in the beauty, symmetry, and distinctness 
with which the characters were drawn. One peculiarity that struck me at 
once, as I cast my e} 7 e over the parchment, was the horn-like appearance 
attached to some of the letters. I had seen the same mark before this in 
Hebrew manuscripts, but never where it was so prominent as here. The 
sign in question, as connected with the Hebrew letter Lamedh [^] in par- 
ticular, had almost the appearance of an intentional imitation of a ram's 
head." — Illustrations of Scripture, p. 225. 

Dr. Ginsburg, in Kitto's Cyclopedia, (s. v., Jot and Tittle,) expresses the 
opinion that the " tittle " refers to certain small ornaments which the 
Talmudists were accustomed to place upon the tops of letters. They attached 
great importance to these ornaments, though they formed no special part of 
the letters. 

640.— AGREEING WITH AN ADVERSARY. 
V, 25. Agree with thine adversary quickly, while thou art in 
the way with him ; lest at any time the adversary deliver 
thee to the judge. See also Luke xii, 58. 

According to the Roman law, if a person had a quarrel which he could not 
settle privately he had the right to order hi? adversary to ae-ompany him to 



338 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

the praetor. If he refused, the prosecutor took some one present to wit- 
ness by saying, " May I take you to witness ? " If the person consented 
he offered the tip of his ear, which the prosecutor touched ; a form which 
was observed toward witnesses in some other legal ceremonies among the 
Romans. Then the plaintiff might drag the defendant to court by force in 
any way, even by the neck, (see Matt, xviii, 28 ;) but worthless persons, such 
as thieves and robbers, might be dragged before a judge without the formal- 
ity of calling a witness. If on the way to the judge the difficulty was set- 
tled, no further legal steps were taken. See Adam's Roman Antiquities, 
12th Ed., p. 98. 

To this custom our Saviour refers in the text. When the accused is thus 
legally seized by the accuser, he is urged to make up his qnarrel while on 
the way to the judge, so that no further legal process be had. 

641.— PROFANITY. 
V, 34. I say unto you, Swear not at all. 

The Pharisees taught that there were two kinds of oaths — the violation of 
one being perjury, and that of the other an innocent matter, or at most 
but a slight offense. If the name of God was in the oath it was binding; 
this the Saviour refers to in verse 33. If the name of God was not in the oath 
it need not be kept. Jesus, on the other hand, objects to this distinction ; and 
further teaches that it is wrong to indulge in profanity. The Orientals 
were very profuse in their swearing; and examples are found in classic 
writers of the different sorts of oaths referred to in verses 34-36. The 
habit has continued to the present day, as various travelers have testified. 
Among others, Dr. Thomson says : li This people are fearfully profane. 
Every body curses and swears when in a passion. No people that I have ever 
known can compare with these Orientals for profaneness in the use of the 
names and attributes of God. The evil habit seems inveterate and universal. 
. . . The people now use the same sorts of oaths that are mentioned and 
condemued by our Lord. They swear by the head, by their life, by heaven, 
and by the temple, or, what is in its place, the Church. The forms of curs- 
ing and swearing, however, are almost infinite, and fall on the pained ear 
all day long." — The Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 284. 

642.— COMPULSORY HELP. 
V, 41. Whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him 
twain. 

There is reference here to an ancient Persian custom, which was adopted by 
the Persian government. The Persians introduced the use of regular couriers 
to carry letters or news. See note on Job ix, 25. The king's courier had 
absolute command of all help that was necessary in the performance of his 



M.tthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 33'J 

i ask. He could press houses into bis service, and compel the owners to ac- 
company him if he desired. To refuse compliance with his demands was an 
uupardonable offense against the king. 

643.— ALMS-GIVING. 
VI, 2. When thou doest thine alms, do not sound a trumpet 
before thee, as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in 
the streets, that they may have glory of nien. 

1. Some have thought from these words that it was customary, literally, to 
sound a trumpet before an alms-giver. However this might have been in the 
streets, it certainly could not be permitted "in the synagogues," as it would 
disturb the services there. There is no evidence whatever that any such 
custom was ever practiced by alms-givers. The words are therefore to be 
understood in a figurative sense, which is based on the custom of heralds 
making public announcements; or there maybe an allusion to the trumpet 
which was sounded before aciors and gladiators when they were brought 
into the theater; or to the trumpet which was sounded six times from the 
roof of the synagogue to usher in the Sabbath. We have corresponding 
phrases in modern languages. "In German, auspomunen and an die grosse 
Glocke schlagen; in English, 'to sound one's own trumpet,' 'to trumpet forth,' 
1 every man his own trumpet ; ' iu French, faire quelque chose tambour battant, 
trompetter ; in Italian, trompetar, bucinarT — Tholuck, Sermon on the Mount, 
p. 298. The idea of the text is simply that alms-giving should be unaccom- 
panied by ostentation. 

2. It was customary among the Jews to give alms to the poor who were 
assembled before the entrance to the temple or synagogue. This is referred 
to in Acts iii, 3, where the lame man asked alms of Peter and John as they 
were going into the temple. Chrysostom makes reference to the custom 
as afterward practiced in front of the early Christian churches. See Bing- 
ham, Antiquities of the Christian Church, Book XIII., chap, viii, § 14. It may 
be that in the text the word "streets" refers to the space in front of the 
synagogue. 

In the synagogues there was a regular form of giving alms, the offerings 
being deposited in the alms-boxes before the prayers began. Thus the 
Saviour speaks first of alms-giving, and next of prayer. Sometimes, on 
special occasions, the congregation handed their alms to the proper officer. 

644.— THE TWO HANDS. 
VI, 3. When thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what 
thy right hand doeth. 

This is a proverbial expression, found also in classic and Rabbinical authors. 
"We know of no custom alluded to in this proverb save the general habit of 



340 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

giving with the right hand, as it is more conveniently used than the other; 
but Mr. Jowett speaks of a custom lie noticed in Palestine, which, if it ex- 
isted in our Lord's time, might have suggested the saying of the text. In 
giving an account of his visit to Nablous, Mr. Jowett says: "The manner 
in which the Samaritan priest desired me, on parting, to express our mutual 
good-will, was by an action, than which there is not one more common in 
all the Levant. He put the forefinger of his right hand parallel to that of his 
left, and then rapidly rubbed them together, while I was expected to do 
the same, repeating the words, ' right, right ; ' or, in common acceptation, 
' together, together.' It is in this manner that persons express their consent 
on all occasion?: on concluding a bargain, on engaging to bear one another 
company, and on every kind of friendly agreement or good understanding." 
— Christian Researches, etc., p. 209. 

The idea of the text may be, that alms-giving is not to be a matter where 
the hands are put together in token of an understanding with some one 
else, but it is to be done privately. 

645.— REPETITIONS IN PRAYER. 

VI, 7. When ye pray, use not vain repetitions, as the heathen 
do : for they think that they shall be heard for their much 
speaking. 

Some of the rabbis in our Lord's time had taught that oft- repeated prayers 
were of certain efficacy, thus falling into an imitation of the heathen, who 
have ever been noted for unmeaning repetitions. When Elijah challenged 
the worshipers of Baal, they called on their god "from morning even unto 
noon, saying, Baal, hear us." 1 Kings xviii, 26. "When Paul excited the 
rage of Demetrius, who in turn aroused the mob at Ephesus, the angry 
crowd " all with one voice about the space of two hours cried out, Great is 
Diana of the Ephesians." Acts xix, 34. It would seem as if the further 
men become removed from true spiritual worship the greater estimate they 
put on oft-repeated forms. The Mohammedans equal the heathen in this 
respect. After the storming of Seringapatam, the body of Tippoo Sahib was 
found among the slain, and in his pocket was a book of devotion with various 
forms of prayer, and among them the following: "0 God, God, God. 
God! Lord, Lord, Lord, Lord 1 Living, Immortal! Living. 
Immortal ! Living, Immortal! Living, Immortal! Crent< r 
of the heavens and the earth ! thou who art endowed with majesty and 
authority! wonderful," etc. — Burder, Oriental Customs^ No. 931. 

The Hindus consider the repetition of the name of a god an act of wor- 
ship. They say the name of God is like fire, through which all sins are 
consumed ; hence the repetition of the names of their deities is a common 
practice. According to Ward, they even have rosaries, t l e beads of which 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 341 

they count off in order to facilitate these repetitions. They imagine that 
by this easy process they can obtain any thing they desire. 

646.— GRASS FOR FUEL. 

VI, 30. The grass of the field, which to-day is, and to-morrow 
is east into the oven. See also Luke xii, 28. 

So great is the scarcity of fuel that even dried grass and withered flowers 
are used for making a fire. They are carefully gathered and carried in bun- 
dles, sometimes in the arms, and sometimes loaded on donkeys. 

See also note on 1 Kings xvii. 10 ; and on Psa. lviii, 9. 

647.— BREAD RESEMBLING STONES. 

VII, 9. What man is there of you, whom, if his son ask bread, 
will he give him a stone ? See also Luke xi, 11. 

The point of this question will be more apparent when it is remembered 
that the loaves of bread bore some resemblance in general appearance to 
round, flat stones. A similar allusion may be noticed in the narrative of our 
Lord's temptation, where the devil suggests that Jesus change the stones 
into bread. See Matt, iv, 4; Luke iv, 4. 

Some of the bread used in the East at the present time resembles stones 
in other respects than in mere appearance. Palmer represents the bread, 
which is daily doled out to the Arabs by the monks of St. Catharine's on 
Mount Sinai, as of decidedly stony character. He playfully says : "One of 
these loaves I brought back with me; an eminent geologist, to whom I sub- 
mitted it. pronounced it 'a p'ece of metamorphic rock, containing fragments 
of quartz embedded in an amorphous paste.' No decently brought-up 
ostrich could swallow one without endangering his digestion for the term of 
his natural life." — Tlie Desert of the Exodus, p. 61. 

64§.— THE SCRIBES. 
VII. 29. He taught them, as one having authority, and not as 
the scribes. See also Mark i, 22. 

Anciently the scribes were merely officers whose duties included writing 
of various kinds; but, on the return of the Jews from the Babylonish cap- 
tivity, the sopJierim., as the scribes were called, were organized by Ezra into 
a distinct body, and they became interpreters of God's law as well as copy- 
ists. Among other duties, they copied the Pentateuch, the Phylacteries, 
(see note on Matt, xxiii, 5,) and the Mezuzoth. See note on Deut. vi, 9. So 
great was the ; r care in copying that they counted and compared all the let- 
ters, to be sure that none were left out that belonged to the text, or none 
admitted improperly. On stated occasions they read the law in the syna- 



342 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

gogues. They also lectured to their disciples, and commented on the 
law. 

The lawyers (see Matt, xxii, 35; Luke vii. 30; xi. 45; xiv, 3) and the 
doctors of the law (see Luke ii, 46 ; v, 17 ; Acts v, 34) were substantially 
the same as the scribes. Efforts have been made to show that different 
classes of duties were assigned to lawyers, doctors, and scribes, but without 
any very definite results. It may be, as some suppose, that the doctors 
were a higher grade than the ordinary scribes. The scribes were all care- 
fully educated for their work from early life, and at an appropriate time — 
some say at the age of thirty — they were admitted to office with special 
forms of solemnity. 

The scribes were not only copyists of the law, but they were also the 
keepers of the oral traditionary comments and additions to the law. Gradu- 
ally accumulating with the progress of time these were numerous, and were 
regarded by many as of equal value with the law itself. To this Jesus alludes 
in Mark vii, 5-13. Paul represents himself as having been, before his con- 
version, "exceedingly zealous of the traditions" of his fathers. Gal. i, 14. 
The scribes also adopted forced interpretations of the law. endeavoring to 
find a special meaning in every word, syllable, and letter. Thus the Saviour 
charges them: i; Woe unto you, lawyers! for ye have taken away the key 
of knowledge: ye entered not in yourselves, and them that were entering 
in ye hindered." Luke xi, 52. 

At the time of Christ the people were increasingly dependent on the scribes 
for a knowledge of their Scriptures. The language of the Jews was passing 
into the Aramaic dialect, and the mass of the people, being unable to under- 
stand their own sacred books, were obliged to accept the interpretation which 
the scribes put upon them. Hence their astonishment, as indicated in the 
text, at the peculiar style of teaching adopted by Jesus, and especially illus- 
trated in his Sermon on the Mount. The scribes repeated traditions ; Jesus 
spake with authority : {l I say unto you." They had but little sympathy with 
the masses; he went about mingling with the people, and explaining to them 
in a simple practical way the duties of religion. 

649.— THE BED. 

IX, 6. Arise, take up thy bed, and. go unto thine house. See 

also Mark ii, 9-12. 

The " bed " was simply a mat or blanket which could be carried in the 
hands. The poor sometimes had no other bed than the outer garment. ' See 
note on Deut. xxiv, 12. 13. The wealthier people in the East have quilts or 
mattresses filled with cotton, which are spread on the floor or on the divan. 
See note on 2 Kings i. 4. In the text the paralytic, being healed, was told 
to take up his bed and go home. All he had to do was to roll up his blanket 



Matthew] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



343 




134 — Eolling up a Bed. 

and depart. A similar incident took place at the pool of Bethesda. See 
John v, 8, 9, 11, 12. On such simple '"beds" the sick were easily carried. 
This is referred to in Matt, ix, 2; Mark ii, 3, 4; Luke v, 18; Acts v, 15. 



650.— USE OF THE TERM CHILDREN. 
IX, 15. Jesus said unto them, Can the children of the bride- 
ehamber mourn, as long as the bridegroom is with them ? 
See also Mark ii, 19 ; Luke v, 34. 

The "children of the bride-charnber " were the friends and acquaintances 
who participated in the marriage festivities. The expression " child " or 
"children," like that of "father," (see note on Gen. iv, 20, 21,) is an Orien- 
tal form of speech, and is designed to show some relation between the per- 
son to whom it is applied and certain qualities existing in that person, 
or certain circumstances connected with him; these qualities or circum- 
stances being the result of that relation. Thus people who are brought to- 
gether on occasion of a marriage-feast are called the " children of the bride- 
chamber." So when any passion or influence, good or bad, gets control of 
men, they are said to be the children of that passion or influence. Thus we 
have "children of wickedness," 2 Sam. vii, 10; "children of pride," Job 
xli, 34 ; " children of the kingdom," and " children of the wicked one," Matt, 
xiii, 38; "children of this world," and "children of light," Luke xvi, 8 ; 
"children of disobedience," Eph. ii, 2; Col. iii, 6; "eh'ldren of wrath," 
Rph. ii. 3. 



344 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Matthew. 



We find a similar idiom in the use of the word "s n" and "daughter." 
We have " sons of Belial " in Judges xix, 22. and in several other passages; 
"sons of the mighty," Psa. lxxxix, 6; "sons of thunder," Mark iii, 17; 
"son of consolation," Acts iv, 36; "son of perdition," 2 Thess. ii, 3. We 
have also "daughter of Belial," 1 Sam. i, 16; "daughters of music," Eccl. 
xii, 4; " daughter of troops," Micah v, 1. 




651.— SKIN-BOTTLES. 
IX. 17. Neither do men put new wine into old. bottles: else 
the bottles break, and the wine runneth out, and the bottles 
perish : but they put new wine into new bottles, and both are 
preserved. See also Mark ii, 22; Luke v, 37. 

The u?e of bottles made from the skins of animals is very ancient, and is 
still practiced in the East. The skins of goats and kids are commonly taken 
fortius purpose, and are usually so fashioned as to retain the figure of the 
animal. In preparing the bottle, the head and feet are cut off, and the skin 
stripped whole from the body. The neck of 
the animal sometimes makes the neck of the 
bottle ; in other cases one of the fore-legs is 
used as an aperture through which the liquid 
may be poured out. The thighs serve as 
handles ; by attaching straps to them the 
bottle can be fastened to the saddle, or slung 
over the shoulder of the traveler. The Arabs 
135.— A ncirnt Skin-Bottles. tan the skins with Acacia bark and leave the 
hairy side out. For a large party, and 
for long journeys across tie desert, the 
skins of camels or of oxen are used. 
Two of these, when tilled with water, 
make a good load for a camel. They 
are smeared with grease to prevent leak- 
age and evaporation. These water-skins, 
large and small, are much better than 
earthen jars or bottles for the rough ex-- 
periences of Oriental traveling. Earthen 
bottles are, however, sometimes em- 
ployed in domestic use. See note on 
Jer. xix, 1. 

The "bottle" which Hagar carried 
into the wilderness, and from which she 
gave Ishmael drink, was probably a kid- 
skin. See Gen. xxi, 14. A similar scene is represented in the engraving 




136.— Woman giving Drink to a 
Ciiild from a Skin-Bottle. 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 345 

from an ancient Assyrian sculpture. Skin-bottles were also used for milk 
(Judges iv, 19) and for wine (1 Sam. xvi, 20.) In the text and its parallels 
allusion is made to this use of skins. When the skin is green, it stretches by 
fermentation of the liquor and retains its integrity; but when it becomes 
old and dry, the fermentation of the new wine soon causes it to burst. 

For the mode of repairing skin-bottles when broken, see note on Josh. 
ix, 4. 

652.— FRINGES. 

IX, 20. Came behind him, and. touched, the hem of his gar- 
ment. See also Luke viii, 44. 

According to the Mosaic law every Jew was obliged to wear a fringe or 
tassel at each of the four corners of the outer garment, one thread of each 
tassel to be deep blue. These tassels were to be to them a perpetual re- 
minder of the law of God, and of their duty to keep it. See Num. xv, 38, 39 ; 
Deut. xxii, 12. This was the '-hem" which the poor woman touched, sup- 
posing there was some peculiar virtue in it. So the people of Gennesaret 
brought their sick to Christ for a similar purpose. See Mark vi, 56, where 
the same word in the original, npuciredov. is rendered " border." The Phari- 
sees prided themselves greatly on these tassels, considering them as marks 
of special sanctity in the wearers, and therefore sought to enlarge their size. 
See Matt, xxiii, 5. 

653.— THE PURSE. 

X, 9. Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your 
purses. See also Mark vi, 8 ; Luke x, 4. 

" In your purses," is literally " in your girdles" (Co)vag.) It is quite com- 
mon to use the folds of the girdle as a pouch, or pocket, for the reception of 
money. Money is also sometimes carried in a bag, which is put into the gir- 
dle. This is referred to in the parallel passage in Luke, where the word 
rendered "pnrse" (J3a?Mvrcov) signifies a bag. 



654.— SHOES. 
X, 10. Neither shoes. See also Luke x, 4. 

From ihe fact that, in the parallel passage in Mark vi, 9, the disciples are 
commanded to be "shod with sandal-*," it has been inferred that our Lord 
designed to mark a distinction between shoes and sandals, though some 
commentators treat the idea as absurd. It is certain, however, that in our 
Lord's time there were, besides sandals, other coverings for the feet more 
nearly approaching our idea of a shoe. Some of these covered the entire 
foot, while in others the toes were left bare, as represented in the engraving. 




346 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

The use of shoes may have been forbidden to 
the disciples because of their luxury, while san- 
dals were allowed as articles of necessity. 
Thus the statement in Matthew and in Luke, 
and that in Mark, may be reconciled. The shoe 
was forbidden, the sandal permitted. 

When the prodigal came back to his fa- 
ther's house shoes were put on his feet. Luke 
xr, 22. 

For a description of sandals, see note on Acts 
137. — Ancient Shoes. xu j "• 

655.— HEATHEN DUST. 

X, 14. When ye depart out of that house or city, shake off the 
dust of your feet. See also Mark vi, 11 ; Luke ix, 5. 

The schools of the scribes taught that the dust of heathen lands was de- 
filing. They therefore objected even to bringing plants or herbs from heathen 
countries, lest some of the dust should come with them. Some of the rab- 
bins permitted this, provided no dust was brought with the plants. They 
give this gloss to the rule : " They take care lest, together with the herbs, 
something of the dust of the heathen land be brought, which defiles in the 
tent, and defiles the purity of the land of Israel." See Lightfoot, Hor<e 
Eebraicce. 

The Saviour, doubtless, alluded to this rabbinical rule, and, by using the 
expression of the text, conveyed the idea to his disciples that every place 
which should reject them was to be considered heathen, impure, profane. 

"When Paul and Barnabas were driven from Antioch, in Pisidia, " they 
shook off the dust of their feet." See Acts xiii, 51. 

656.— COUNCILS— DISCIPLINE OF THE SYNAGOGUE. 
X, 17. They will deliver you up to the councils, and they will 
scourge you in their synagogues. See also Mark xiii, 9. 

1. In addition to the Great Sanhedrim or Council (for a description of 
which see note on Matt, xxvi, 59) there were councils of an inferior degree. 
There is some obscurity in connection with their history and construction. 
They are supposed to have been originated by Moses. See Deut. xvi, 18. 
In later times there were two of them in Jerusalem, and one in each town 
in Palestine. The rabbins say there were twenty-three judges to each of 
these councils in every place where the population was a hundred and 
twenty, and three judges where the population was less. Josephus, how- 
ever, says that there were seven judges to each council, and that each judge 
had two Levites to assist him. 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 347 

These councils had power not only to judge civil cases, but also such crim- 
inal cases as did not come within the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, 
or Sanhedrim. In the provinces they at first met in the market-place, but 
afterward in a room adjoining the synagogue. Some writers suppose that 
these local provincial councils are identical with the " elders " and " rulers of 
the synagogue," so often mentioned in the New Testament. See article 
" Synagogue," in Kitto's Cyclopedia, vol. iii, p. 902 b. See, further, note on 
Acts xiii, 15. The connection in the text between councils and scourging 
seems to indicate this, unless it can be shown, as some have asserted, that 
the "rulers of the synagogue" formed a council apart from the smaller 
Sanhedrim. 

2. The discipline of the synagogue was severe. Besides excommunica- 
tion, (see note on John ix, 22,) scourging was sometimes practiced. The 
number of the stripes was limited by law to forty. Deut. xxv, 3. To pre- 
vent the possibility of excess, by mistake in counting, the legal number was 
reduced by one. Paul was thus beaten five distinct times. 2 Cor. xi, 24. 
It is said, however, that in aggravated cases the stripes were laid on with 
greater severity than usual. 

The rabbins reckon' a hundred and sixty-eight faults to be punished by 
scourging ; in fact, all punishable faults to which the law has not anuexed 
the penalty of death. " The offender was stripped from his shoulders to his 
middle, and tied by his arms to a pretty low pillar, that he might lean for- 
ward, and the executioner might more easily come at his back. ... It is 
said that, after the stripping of the criminal, the executioner mounted upon 
a stone, to have more power over him, and then scourged him' both on the 
back and breasts with thongs made of an ox's hide, in open court, before 
the face of the judges." — Bukder, Oriental Customs, No. 949. 

Scourging in the synagogues is also referred to in Matt, xxiii, 34. Paul 
admits that in his days of wickedness he had in this manner maltreated 
Christians. Acts xxii, 19. 

For an account of Roman scourging, see note on Matt, xxvii, 26. 

657.— PUBLIC PROCLAMATIONS. 
X, 27. "What ye hear in the ear, that preach ye upon the house- 
tops. See also Luke xii, 3. 

Public proclamations are still made from the housetops by the governors 
of country districts in Palestine. Thomson says: "Their proclamations are 
generally made in the evening, after the people have returned from their 
labors in the field. The public crier ascends the highest roof at hand, and 
lifts up his voice in a long-drawn call upon all faithful subjects to give ear 
and obey. He then proceeds to announce, in a set form, the will of their 
master, and demand obedience thereto." — The Land and the Book, vol. i, p. 51. 



348 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Matthew. 



In tlie contrast expressed between hearing privately and proclaiming pub- 
licly, there may also be reference to the mode of instruction in the schools 
of the rabbis. Lightfoot expresses this opinion, and says : " The doctor 
whispered, out of the chair, into the ear of the interpreter, and he, with a 
loud voice, repeated to the whole school that which was spoken in the ear." 
— Hor<B Htbraic(£. He also suggests that the reference to the house-tops 
may be an allusion to the custom of sounding the synagogue trumpet from 
the roof to usher in the Sabbath. See note on Matt, vi, 2. 

658.— THE ASSARIUS. 
X, 29. Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing ? 
'Aaadpiov is one of the two words rendered "farthing" in our version. 
It was the Roman as or assarius, a copper coin, equal in value to a tenth of 

a denarius, (see note on Matt, xx, 
2,) or three farthings English, or 
one cent and a half American. 

In Luke xii, 6. two assaria are 
spoken of. It is thought that a 
single coin is there intended of the 
value of two assaria. The Vul- 
gate has dipondius. Madden says : 
" It is very clear from the fact of 
the word dupondius, or dipondius, which was equal to two asses, and was a 
coin of itself, beina: substituted for the two assaria of the Greek text, that 
a single coin is intended by this latter expression. This idea is fully borne 
out by the coins of Chios. The Greek autonomous copper coins of this place 
have inscribed upon them the words ACCAPION, ACCAPIA AYS2 or 
ATO and ACCAPIA TPIA."— History of Jewish Coinage, p. 243. 




138. — Assakion. 



659.— GAMES OF CHILDREN. 
XI, 16, 17. It is like unto children sitting in the markets, and 
calling unto their fellows, and saying, We have piped unto 
you, and ye have not danced ; we have mourned unto you, 
and ye have not lamented. See also Luke vii, 31, 32. 

There is allusion here to the habits of children, who, in the East as else- 
where, imitate in sport what they see performed in sober earnest by adults. 
The public processions and rejoicings on Oriental wedding occasions, and 
the great lamentations at funerals, make such an impression on the young; 
mind that children introduce imitations of them into their plays. Some ol 
them play on imaginary pipes, while others dance, as at weddings. Again, 
some of them set up an imitation of a mournful wail, to which others re- 
spond in doleful lamentations, as at funerals. Then at times there will bo 



Matthew] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 349 

found some stubborn little ones, of perverse spirit, who will not conseut to 
Jake part in any play that may be proposed. They will not dance while 
others pipe, neither will they lament when others mourn. They are deter- 
mined not to be pleased in any way; they will play neither wedding nor 
funeral. Thus it was that the people would receive neither Jesus nor John ; 
but, like perverse children, they refused to be satisfied with any proposition 
made to them. 

Travelers have noticed that children in Palestine, at the present day, keep 
up this ancient custom of playing weddings and funerals. 

660.— FREE CORN FOR THE HUNGRY. 

XII, I. His disciples were an hungered, and began to pluck the 
ear's of corn, and to eat. See also Mark ii, 23 ; Luke vi, 1. 

■ Tt was perfectly lawful for persons when hungry to help themselves to as 
much of their neighbor's growing grain as they wished for food. They 
were not allowed to cut any, but must simply gather what was needed with 
the hand. "When thou comest into the standing corn of thy neighbor, 
then thou mayest pluck the ears with thine hand: but thou shalt not move 
a sickle unto thy neighbor's standing corn." Deut. xxiii, 25. The Pharisees 
did not complain that the corn was plucked, but that it was gathered on the 
Sabbath. 

This ancient freedom of a handful of grain for a hungry traveler is still in 
existence in Palestine. 

661.— TESTIMONY GIVEN STANDING. 
XIT, 41. The men of Nineveh shall rise in judgment with this 
generation, and shall condemn it. See also Luke xi, 32. 

The Saviour may have alluded to a custom among the Jews and Romans, 
whereby the witnesses rose in their seats when they made accusation or 
bore testimony. The "Queen of the South" is in like manner represented 
as rising in judgment. See verse 42, and Luke xi. 31. The dying Stepheu 
saw ••the Sou of man standing on the right hand of God." Acts vii, 56. 
May he not have risen to bear testimony against Stephen's persecutors? 

The same custom is alluded to in Luke xxiii, 10. 

662.— FISHING-BOATS. 

XIII, 2. He went into a ship, and sat. See also Mark iv, 1. 

We have no special description of the ships which were used on the Sea 
of Galilee. The most of them were probably small boats used for fishing 
purposes, and propelled by oars, while some had masts and sails. There 
were doubtless others which were used for pleasure or for passage ; and 
Josephus tells us of some in his day that were Vessels of war. Frequent 
mention is made bv the evangelists of the ships on the Sea of Galilee. 

- 22 



350 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 



663.— GOING FORTH TO SOW. 

XIII, 3. Behold, a sower went forth to sow. See also Mark iv, 3; 
Luke viii, 5. 

According to Dr. Thomson, this statement is more literally true than would 
appear to a hasty reader. The farmers in Palestine go forth to sow their 
seed, the fields being at a considerable distance from their homes, sometimes 
six or eight miles. See The Land and the Book, vol. i, pp. 115-118. 

664.— THE WAY-SIDE. 
XIII, 4. When he sowed, some seeds fell by the way-side. See 
also Mark iv, 4 ; Luke viii, 5. 

The ordinary roads or paths often lead by the side of uninclosed fields ; 
hence it must often happen that the seed thrown by the hand of the sower 
will be scattered beyond the plowed field, and fall on the beaten path. 

665.— WICKEDNESS AT NIGHT. 
XIII, 25. But while men slept, his enemy came and sowed 
tares among the wheat, and went his way. 

Roberts states that the exact counterpart of this nocturnal villainy may 
be found in India at the present da}'. A man wishing to do his enemy an 
injury, watches for the time when he shall have finished plowing his field, 
and in the night he goes into the field and scatters pandinellu, or "pig- 
paddy." " This being of rapid growth springs up before the good seed, and 
scatters itself before the other can be reaped, so that the poor owner of ihe 
field will be some years before he can rid the soil of the troublesome weed. 
But there is another noisome plant which these wretches cast into the 
ground of those whom they hate: it is called pet um-pir audi, and is more 
destructive to vegetation than any other plant. Has a man purchased a field 
which another intended to buy, the disappointed person declares, 'I will 
plant the per um-pir andi in his grounds.'" — Oriental Illustrations, p. 530. 

666.— LEAVEN. 

XIII, 33. The kingdom of heaven is like unto leaven. See also 
Luke xiii, 21. 

The usual leaven among the Jews consisted of dough in a high state of 
fermentation, though the lees of wine were sometimes employed. 

667.— HIDDEN TREASURE. 
XIII, 44. The kingdom of heaven is like unto treasure hid in a 
field. 

The possession of wealth often becomes, in the East, a source of great 
perplexity because of its insecurity. Every man being his own banker, 



Matthew.] BIBLE MAXNEKS AND CUSTOMS. 351 

ingenuity is taxed to devise some plau of concealment, or to find some place 
where money, jewels, and other valuables may remain free from molestation 
or suspicion. Sometimes these treasures are hidden in secret closets in the 
house, or in vaults under the house ; sometimes they are buried in the field, 
in a spot unknown to all save the owner. It not unfrequently happens that 
the owner goes away and dies before the time of his intended return, his 
secret dying with him. Times of war and pestilence carry off great num- 
bers, who leave treasures concealed, no one knows where. There are, no 
doubt, deposits of immense value thus buried in different parts of the East. 
The people are always ready to notice any indication of subterranean 
wealth, and to dig for it when they get the opportunity. The archaeological 
explorations of travelers are often seriously retarded by the suspicions 
aroused that they have some secret means of ascertaining the location of 
hidden treasures, and that the great object of all their exploring is to get 
money and jewels. 

These facts illustrate the text. A man who discovers the place where 
treasure is hid keeps the discovery to himself, buys the field, and the treas- 
ure is his own. Other references of a similar character are made in differ- 
ent parts of the Bible, showing how ancient and how widespread is the cus- 
tom of concealing treasures. It was thus that Achan hid the spoils of war 
in the earth in the midst of his Sent. Josh, vii, 21. Job represents men who- 
are weary of life, longing for death with the eagerness of treasure-seekers. 
They "dig for it more than for hid treasures." They " rejoice exceedingly, 
and are glad, when they can find the grave." Job hi, 21, 22. Solomon, per- 
haps, alludes to this custom when he speaks of those who search after wis- 
dom " as for hid treasures," (Prov. ii, 4,) though the reference may be, as 
some thiuk, to mining operations. He may also refer to it when he says 
that "the abundance of the rich will not suffer him to sleep." Eccl. v, 12. 
The more treasure one has the more care he must take to conceal it, and 
the fear of discovery would naturally create sleeplessness. God's promise 
to Cyrus is a further illustration: "I will give thee the treasures of dark- 
ness, and hidden riches of secret places." Isa. xlv, 3. In the parable of the 
talents, the servant who had but one talent buried it in the earth. Matt. 
xxv, 18. 

Wheat, oil, and other products of the soil, were also buried. See note on 
Jer. xli, 8. 

668,— FISHING NETS. 
XIII, 47. The kingdom of heaven is like unto a net, that was 
east into the sea, and. gathered of every kind. 

The precise form of the fishing nets used by the Hebrews is not known ; 
nor do we know the exact difference between the meanings to be attached 



352 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

to the several words which are translated "net." A kind of net very com- 
monly used resembled the modern seine. It is a net of this sort that is re- 
ferred to here. Some suppose that in John xxi, 6, there is also an allusion 
to this kind of net, but others think that a net for deep-sea fishing is there 
meant ; a net so arranged as to inclose the fish in deep water. Such a net 
seems to be intended in Luke v, 4, where the command is given, "Launch 
out into the deep, and let down your nets for a draught." 

In the Old Testament, fishing nets are referred to in Hab. i, 15, 16. 

669.— EXTRAVAGANT PROMISES. 
XIV, 7. He promised with, an oath to give her whatsoever 
she would ask. See also Mark vi, 23. 

It is common for public dancers at festivals in great houses to ask for re- 
wards from the company. An instance is recorded by Thevenot, in 
his Travels in Persia, which reminds us of this extravagant promise of 
Herod. Shah Abbas was on one occasion so pleased with the performances 
of a dancing-woman that he gave her the fairest khan in all Ispahan, one 
which yielded large revenues to the royal treasury. He was drunk at the 
time, and, when he became sober, repented of his rash generosity, and com- 
pelled the girl to accept, instead, a sum of money very far below the value 
of the khan. 

67©.— THANKS AT MEALS. 
XIV, 19. He took the five loaves, and. the two fishes, and. look- 
ing up to heaven, he blessed, and brake. See also Mark vi, 41 ; Luke 
ix, 16; John vi, 11. 

Ii was customary among the Jews to give thanks to G-od at the commence- 
ment of every meal. The usual form was, "Blessed be thou, Lord our 
God. the king of the world, who produced bread out of the earth." They 
also had a form of blessing for the wine: "Blessed art thou, Lord, the 
king of the world, who created the fruit of the vine." These, or similar 
forms, were used at the celebration of the passover. See note on Matt, 
xxvi, 20. Paul, in allusion to this custom, calls the wine used in the Lord's 
supper "the cup of blessing.' 1 Cor. x, 16. The expression "bless the 
sacrifice " in 1 Sam. ix, 13, is also an allusion to the custom of asking a 
blessing before eating, the reference being to those parts of the peace-offer- 
ing which were to be eaten by the offerer and his friends. See note on 
Lev. vii, 11. 

In compliance with the ancient Jewish custom, the Saviour, before feed- 
ing the five thousand, blessed God for the gift bestowed. At another lime, 
when four thousand were fed, "he took the seven loaves and the fishes, and 
gave thanks, and brake them." Matt, xv, 36. See also Mark viii. 6, 7. 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 353 

671.— BASKETS. 

XIV, 20. They took up of the fragments that remained twelve 
baskets full. See also Mark vi, 43 ; Luke ix, 17 ; John vi, 13. 

The baskets now used in the East resemble very much those which are 
represented on the monuments of Egypt. They are often like our own in 
shape, material, and workmanship. 

The baskets here referred to (k66ivol) were probably the ordinary traveling- 
baskets which the Jews took with them when on a journey. They carried 
their provisions in them, so that they might not be polluted by eating the food 
of the Gentiles; and it is also said that they sometimes carried hay in them, 
on which they slept at night. Thus they kept aloof from the Gentiles in 
food and lodging. This will account for the contemptuous description which 
Juvenal gives of the Jews, when he represents that their household goods 
consisted of a basket and hay! 

In the corresponding miracle, where four thousand were fed. a different 
kind of basket was employed. See Matt, xv, 37; Mark viii, 8; and es- 
pecially Matt, xvi, 9, 10; Mark viii, 19, 20; where, in the original, two dif- 
ferent terms are used. It is impossible, however, now to tell the precise 
difference between the two sorts of baskets mentioned. 

672.— TRADITION. 

XV, 3. Why do ye also transgress the commandment of God 
by your tradition ? See also Mark vii, 9. 

Lightfoot {Horce, Hebraicce, on verse 2) gives a number of curious illustra- 
tions from the old Talmudical writers, showing the value which they set 
on traditions: "The words of the scribes are lovely, above the words of the 
law ; for the words of the law are weighty and light, but the words of the 
scribes are all weighty." " The words of the elders are weightier than the 
words of the prophets." "A prophet and an elder, to what are they 
likened? To a king sending two of his servants into a province. Of one 
he writes thus: Unless he shows you my seal, believe him not: of the 
other'thus: Although he shows you not my seal, yet believe him. Thus it 
is written of the prophet. He shall show thee a sign or a miracle: but the 
elders thus : According to the law which they shall teach thee." 

673.— BINDING AND LOOSING. 

XVI, 19. Whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound 
in heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall 
be loosed in heaven. 

Lightfoot gives a large number of citations from rabbinical authorities to 
show the common usage in the Jewish schools of the words "bind'' and 



354 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

"loose," and also the meaning of these figurative terms. To "bind" is to 
forbid; to "loose "is to allow. Rosenmuller says : "Binding and loosing — 
that is, prohibiting and permitting — were, in the Aramaic language, which 
Jesus used, a customary expression to denote the highest authority. So in 
the Syriac Chronicle of Gregory Bar-Hebrasus, or Abul-faraj, it is said (p. 593 :) 
'The Jew who yesterday was the highest ruler, could bind and loose, and 
wore royal garments, to-day wore a smock-frock. His hands were no longer 
blackened with writing, but with painting. He was a beggar, and no more 
lord.' " — Morgenland, vol. v, p. 67. 

674.— THE TEMPLE-TAX. 
XVII, 24. They that received, tribute- money eame to Peter, and 
said, Doth not your Master pay tribute ? 

Literally, Doth not your master pay the didrachm, or dovMe drachma f 
This was not the tax for the support of the civil government, but the half- 
shekel tax for the support of the temple- service, which every Jew was ex- 
pected to pay. It was founded by Moses, in connection with the tabernacle 
service. See Exod. xxx, 13. It is also referred to in 2 Kings xii, 4; 2 Chron. 
xxiv, 6, 9. Its value was about thirty cents. 

675.— THE STATER. 

XVII, 27. When thou hast opened his mouth, thou shalt find a 
piece of money : that take, and give unto them for me and thee. 

This " piece of money " was a stater, which term was applied to coins 
of gold, of silver, and of an alloy of the two precious metals of the color of 
amber, and therefore called electrum. The stater, which was miraculously 
provided for tribute-money, is supposed to have been one of thetetradrachms 
of the cities of Syria. It was a silver coin, having the same weight as the 
shekel, and its value was about sixty cents of our money. This one coin 
was thus of sufficient value to pay the temple-tax of both Jesus and Peter. 

676.— MILLSTONE —DROWNING. 

XVIII, 6. It were better for him that a millstone were hanged 
about his neck, and that he were drowned in the depth of the 
sea. See also Mark ix, 42 ; Luke xvii, 2. 

1. The ordinary upper-stone of the Eastern hand-mill is from eighteen 
inches to two feet across, and might easily be hung around the neck of a 
person to be drowned. Some commentators, however, are of the opinion 
that, by the "ass-millstone," as the original in both Matthew and Mark may 
be rendered, is meant a stone larger than that used in the ordinary mills — 
one so large as to require brute-power to turn it. Such a stone would sink 
a body in the depths of the sea beyond the possibility of recovery. 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 355 

2. There is no evidence to show that the mode of punishment named in 
the text was ever practiced by the Jews. It was in use, however, by the 
ancient Syrians, the Romans, the Macedonians, and the Greeks. It was in- 
flicted on the worst class of criminals, especially on parricides, and on those 
guilty of sacrilege. 

677.—'- NINETY AND NINE." 

XYIII, 12. If a man have a hundred, sheep, and one of them 
be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, and 
goeth into the mountains, and seeketh that which is gone 
astray ? See also Luke xv, 4, 7. 

This mode of expression was very common with the Jews. Lightfoot 
cites from the Talmud a passage illustrative of it: "When a man is dividing 
nuts among the poor, though ninety-nine call upon him to divide them, and 
one call on him to scatter them, to him they must hearken. With grapes 
and dates it is not so. Though uinety-nine call on him to scatter them, and 
one to divide them, to him they must hearken." 

67§.— "TWO OR THREE." 
XVIII, 20. Where two or three are gathered together in my 
name. 

This is a common Oriental form of speech to express an indefinite number. 
There are other instances of it in the Bible. See 1 Kings xvii, 12 ; Isa. vii, 
21; xvii, 6; Jer. iii, 14; Hos. vi, 2. Some commentators, however, suppose 
the passage in Hosea to refer to the resurrection of Christ ; but it is by no 
means certain. 

679.— TORMENTORS. 

XVIII, 34. His lord was wroth, and delivered him to the tor- 
mentors, till he should pay all that was due unto him. 

The "tormentors" are the jailers, who were allowed to scourge and tor- 
ture the poor debtors in their care in order to get money from them for the 
grasping creditors, or else to excite the compassion of friends, and obtain 
the amount of the debt from them. " In early times of Rome there were 
ci riain legal tortures, in the shape, at least, of a chain weighing fifteen 
pounds, and a pittance of food barely sufficient to sustain life, (see Arnold's 
History of Rome, vol. i, p. 136,) which the creditor was allowed to apply to 
the debtor for the purpose of bringing him to terms; and no doubt they 
often did not stop here." — Trench, Notes on the Parables, (Am. ed.,) p. 133. 

6§0.— BENEDICTIONS ON CHILDREN. 

XIX, 13. Then were there brought unto him little children, that 
he should put his hands on them, and pray. See also Mark x, 13; 
Luke xviii, 15. 

It was common among the Jews to bring their children to men noted for 
piety, to have their blessing and their prayers. On the first anniversary of 



356 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

the birth of a child, it was usual to take it to the synagogue to be blessed 
by the rabbi. 

The laying-on of hands when in prayer was also a customary form when 
invoking the Divine blessing. Thus Israel, when his eyes were dim with 
age, laid his hands on the heads of Ephraim and Manasseh, and blessed 
them and prayed for them, (Gen. xlviii, 14:) and thus Jesus took these chil- 
dren " up in his arms, put his hands upon them, and blessed them." Mark 
x. 16. 

681.— THE "NEEDLE'S EYE." 

XIX, 24. It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a 
needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of 
God. See also Mark x, 25 ; Luke xviii, 25. 

There is supposed to be here a reference to a proverbial form of expres- 
sion common in the Jewish schools, when one desired to express the idea of 
great difficulty or of impossibility. Lightfoot gives several quotations from 
the rabbis, where the difficulty is represented by the image of an elephant 
going through the eye of a needle. 

Some writers, however, think that there is allusion in the text, not only 
to a proverbial form of speech, but also to a fact. They refer to the low. 
narrow entrances to Oriental houses, and to the difficulty a camel would ex- 
perience in entering, though even a camel might enter if he would take off 
his load and kneel down ; which may be considered a hint to rich men who 
would enter the kingdom of heaven. 

A recent English writer says: "In Oriental cities there are in the 
large gates small and very low apertures, called, metaphorically, ' needle.-.'- 
eyes.' just as we talk of certain windows as 'bulls'-eyes.' These entrances 
are too narrow for a camel to pass through them in the ordinary manner, or 
even if loaded. When a laden camel has to pass through one of these en- 
trances it kneels down, its load is removed, and then it shuffles through on 
its knees. 'Yesterday,' writes Lady Duff Gordon from Cairo, 'I saw a 
c;<mel go through the eye of a needle, namely, the low-arched door of an 
inclosure. He must kneel, and bow his head to creep through ; and thus 
the rich' man must humble himself.'" — Bible Animals, by the Eev. J. G. 
Wood, p. 243. 

682— HIRING LABORERS. 

XX, 1. Went out early in the morning to hire laborers into his 
vineyard. 

Lightfoot (Horce Hebraicce) gives several citations from Jewish writers to 
show that the customary time of working was " from sun-rising to the ap- 
pearing of the stars, and not from break of day." The laborers, however, 
may have been hired before sunrise. 



Matthew.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



357 




683.— THE DENARIUS. 
XX, 2. When tie had. agreed with, the laborers for a penny a 
day, he sent them into his vineyard. 

The denarius (penny) was the principal silver coin of the Romans. It was 

originally ten times the value of the as, (see note on Matt, x, 29,) from which 

circumstance it derived its name. 
When, afterward, the weight of 
the a.s was reduced, the denarius 
was made equal to the weight of 
sixteen asses. The value of the 
earlier denarius was a little over 
eightpenee half-penny, or about 
seventeen cents: that of the later 

was eevenpence half-penny, or fifteen cents. Thi3 was the ordinary price of 

a day's labor. 

Under ihe Republic the denarius had on one side the head of Hercules. 

Apollo, Mars, Janus, or Jupiter; but under the Empire it bore the title and 

effigies of the reigning Cesar. See Matt, xxii, 19-21 ; Mark xii, 15-17. 
The "ten pieces of silver " mentioned in Luke xv, 8, are supposed to have 

been denarii; and so are the " fifty thousand pieces of silver" mentioned in 

Acts xix, 19. though authorities vary in opinion. 

6§4.— THE MARKET-PLACE. 
XX, 3. He went out about the third hour, and saw others 
standing idle in the market-plaee. 

The place for trading was often at the gates of walled cities. See note 
on 2 Kings vii, 1. Here, also, laborers went to seek employment, and em- 
ployers went to seek laborers. Sometimes, in Oriental cities, a large public 
square is used for similar purposes. Morier says: "The most conspieuo s 
building in Hamadan is the Mesjid Jumah, a large mosque now falling into 
decay, and before it a maidan or square, which serves as a market-place. 
Here we observed every morning, before 'he sun rose, that a numerous body 
of peasants were collected with spades in their hands, waiting, as they in- 
formed us, to be hired for the day to work in the surrounding fields." — 
Second Journey through Persia,, p. 265. 

685.— DAILY PAYMENT OF LABORERS. 
XX, 8. So when even was eome, the lord of the vineyard 
saith unto his steward, Call the laborers, and give them their 
hire. 

This was according to the Mosaic law, which sought thus to protect the 
poor laborer from any employer who might wish to keep back his hire. 



358 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

" The wages of him that is hired shall not abide with thee all night until the 
morning." Lev. xix, 13. '-Thou shalt not oppress a hired servant that is 
poor and needy, whether he be of thy brethren, or of thy strangers that are 
in thy land within thy gates: at his day thou shalt give him his hire, 
neither shall the sun go down upon it; for he is poor, and setteth his heart 
upon it." Deut. xxiv, 14, 15. 

686.— POST OF HONOR. 

XX, 21. Grant that these my two sons may sit, the one on thy 
right hand, and the other on the left, in thy kingdom. See also 
Mark x, 37. 

It was evidently the intention of this ambitious mother to have positions 
of the greatest honor for her two sons. The right hand is usually considered 
the post of the highest honor. See 1 Kings ii, 19; Psa. xlv, 9; Jxxx, 17. 
For this reason Jesus is said to be at the right hand of God. See Psa. 
ex, 1 ; Mark xiv, 62 ; xvi, 19 ; Luke xx, 42 ; xxii. 69 ; Acts ii, 34; vii. 55, 56 ; 
Rom. vih, 34; Eph. i, 20; CoL iii, 1; Heb. i, 3, 13; viii. 1; x, 12: xii, 2; 
1 Pet, iii, 22. As an apparent exception to this usage, Sir John Chardin 
states that among the Persians the left hand of the king is esteemed the most 
honorable. See Coronation of Solyman III., p. 42. In the East generally, 
although the right hand may be esteemed more honorable than the left, yet 
a position on either hand near the king is considered a post of great honor. 
Josephus represents Saul at supper with Jonathan his son on his right hand, 
and Abner the captain of his host on his left. Antiquities, book vi, chap. ii. § 9. 
The same fact is intimated, though not expressed, in 1 Sam. xx, 25. In the 
Sanhedrim the vice-president sat on the right hand of the president, and the 
referee, who was the officer next in rank, sat on the left. See note on Matt, 
xxvi, 59. 

6§7.— GARMENTS AND BRANCHES STREWN. 

XXL 8. A very great multitude spread their garments in the 
way ; others cut down branches from the trees, and strewed 
them in the way. See also Mark xi, 8 ; Lake xix, 36 ; Joan xii, 13. 

1. The "garments" were the large outer mantles. See note on Deut. 
xxiv, 12, 13. 

2. It was usual to strew flowers and branches, and to spread carpets and 
garments in the way of conquerors and great princes, and of others to whom 
it was intended to show particular honor and respect. In a similar way 
Jehu was recognized as king : " Then they hasted, and took every man his 
garment, and put it under him on the top of the stairs, and blew with trum- 
pets, saying, Jehu is king." 2 Kings ix, 13. When Xerxes crossed the 
Hellespont his way was strewed with myrtle branches. When Cato left his 
army and returned to Rome garments were strewn in his way. 



Matthew.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



359 



The cus'om is still sometimes seen in the East. Roberts was surprised, 
shortly after his arrival in India, to find, on paying a visit to a native gentle- 
man, that the path through the garden was covered with white garments 
on which he was expected to walk. They were spread as a token of respect 
for him. Dr. Robinson relates that shortly after a rebellion which had taken 
place among the people of Bethlehem, " when some of the inhabitants were 
already imprisoned, and all were in deep distress, Mr. Farran, then English 
consul at Damascus, was on a visit to Jerusalem, and had rode out with Mr. 
Nicolayson to Solomon's pools. On their return, as they rose the ascent to 
enter Bethlehem, hundreds of the people, male and female, met them, im- 
ploring the consul to interfere in their behalf, and afford them his protec- 
tion ; and all at once, by a sort of simultaneous movement, 'they spread 
their garments in the way ' before the horses." — Biblical Researches, vol. i, 
p. 473. 

6§§.— THE TEMPLE MARKET. 
XXI, 12. Jesus went into the temple of God, and east out 
all them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew 
the tables of the money-changers, and the seats of them that 
sold doves. See also Mark xi, 15; Luke xix, 45. 

In John ii, 14, is an account of a similar occurrence which took place 
during the first year of Christ's ministry. 

This temple market is supposed to have been established after the captivity, 
when many came from foreign lands to Jerusalem. Light foot says: " There 
was always a constant market in the temple in that place, which was called 
' the shops ; ' where, every day, was sold wine, salt, oil, and other requisites 
to sacrifices; as also oxen and sheep in the spacious Court of the Grentiles." 
— Horm Eebraicce. 

The money-changers made a business of accommodating those who had 
not the Jewish half-shekel for the annual temple tax. See note on Matt, 
xvii, 24. Every one, rich and 
poor, was expected to pay the 
half-shekel for himself during the 
month of Adar. It thus became 
necessary sometimes to change a 
shekel into two halves, or to ex- 
change foreign money for the 
Jewish half-shekel. The men 
who followed this business made 
their living by charging a percentage for the exchange, and carried on 
their traffic within the temple area. 

Loftns found a curious resemblance to this practice in the court of the 
mosque of Meshed Ali at Nedjef: -'A constant fair is carried on at stalls, 




140, 



-Half-shekel. Ascribed to Simon' 
Maccabecs. 



360 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

which are supplied with every article likely as offerings to attract the ej r e of 
the rich or pious — among these, white doves are particularly conspicuous."' — 
Travels in Chaldea and Susiana, p. 53. 

6§9.— THE CHILDREN'S SONG. 
XXI, 15. The children crying in the temple, and. saying, 
Hosanna to the son of David. 

The Jewish children, when very young, were taught to wave the 
branches of palm and boughs of myrtle and willow bound together, which 
were used at the Feast of Tabernacles ; and also, while shaking them, 
to join in the chorus of Hosanna. It is a fact worth noticing, we think, 
that these children shouted Hosanna, not simply in childish imitation of the 
multitude, (verse 8,) but in recollection of what they had been taught to do; 
and although this was not the Feast of Tabernacles, yet when they heard 
the shout of Hosanna they were ready to respond. The point which the 
text illustrates is, the custom of early training the Jewish children in the 
worship of God. Li<rht(oot (Horoz Hebraicw) quotes on this subject from the 
Gemara : " The rabbis teach that so soon as a little child can be taught to 
manage a bundle, he is bound to carry one; so soon as he is known how to 
vail himself, he must put on the borders ; as soon as he knows how to keep 
his father's phylacteries, he must put on his own." 

690.— VINEYARDS— FENCES— WINE-PRESSES— TOWERS. 

XXI. 33. There was a certain householder, which planted a 
vineyard, and hedged it round about, and digged a wine- 
press in it, and built a tower. See also Mark xii, 1 ; Luke xx, 9. 

1. There appear to have been several ways of planting vineyards in Pal- 
estine. Sometimes the vines were planted in rows and trained on stakes. 
Dr. Robinson describes the celebrated vineyards near Hebron as arranged 
in this manner: The vines "are planted in rows eight or ten feet apart in 
each direction. The stock is suffered to grow up large to the height of six 
or eight, feet, and is there fastened in a sloping position to a strong stake, 
and the shoots suffered to grow and extend from one plant to another, form- 
ing a line of festoons. Sometimes two rows are made to slant toward each 
other, and thus form by their shoots a sort of arch. These shoots are 
pruned away in autumn." — Biblical Researches, vol. ii. pp. 80, 81. 

The vines are sometimes planted on the side of a terraced hill, the old 
branches being permitted to trail along the ground, while the fruit-bearing 
shoots are propped with forked sticks. 

An ancient mode of planting vineyards was by training the vines over 
heaps of stones. Palmer discovered large numbers of these stone-heaps 
while traveling through the Negeb, or south country of Palestine. Near 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 361 

the ruins of El-'Aujeli he found some. "The black, flint-covered hill-slopes 
which surrounded the fort are covered with long, regular rows of stones, 
which have been carefully swej.t together and piled into numberless little 
black heaps. These at first considerably puzzled us, as they were evidently 
artificially made, and intended lor some agricultural purpose ; but we could 
not conceive what plants had been grown on such dry and barren ground. 
Here again Arab tradition came to our aid, and the name teleilat-el- y anab, 
'grape-mounds,' solved the difficulty. These sunny slopes, if well tended, 
with such supplies of water and agricultural appliances as the inhabitants 
Of El-'Aujeh must have possessed, would have been admirably adapted to 
the growth of grapes, and the black flinty surface would radiate the solar 
heat, while these little mounds would allow the vines to trail along them, 
and would still keep tiie clusters off the ground." — Desert of the Exodus, 
p. 367. In another place (p. 352) he represents these " grape-mounds " as 
forming one of the most striking characteristics of the Negeb, the hill-sides 
aud i he valleys being covered with them for miles. 

2. The vineyards were sometimes fenced with walls of stone, (see Num. 
xxii, 24; Prov. xxiv, 31,) and sometimes with a hedge of thorny plants, (see 
Psa. lxxx, 12,) and again with stone-walls and hedge combined. The last 
method is probably referred to in Isa. v, 5, where hedge aud wall are both 
spoken of. Maundrell mentions another sort of wall which he saw surround- 
ing the gardens near Damascus. "The garden-walls are of a very singular 
structure. They are built of great pieces of earth made in the fashion of 
brick, and hardened in the sun. In their dimensions they are two yards Pug 
each and somewhat more than one broad, and a yard thick. Two rows of 
these, placed edgeways, one upon another, make a cheap, expeditious, aud, 
iu this dry country, a durable wall." — Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, 
under date of April 27. 

3. The wine-press consisted of two parts — the receptacle fo~ the grapes, 
and the vat for the liquor. Either part, by itself, is sometimes called the 
press. Some very primitive wine-presses are spoken of by travelers, con- 
sisting of a single excavation in the rock, lower at one end than at the 
other, so that the wine when pressed out might find a place to settle. Iu 
some instances a trench is dug in the ground in a similar way, and lined 
with stone or cement. Usually, however, the receptacle for the grapes aud 
the vat for the wine are distinct. The place where the grapes are put may- 
be of stone, or of wood. Near the bottom on one side, or else in the bottom, 
is a closely-grated hole, through which the wine flows into the vat beneath. 

Dr. Robinson found a very ancient wine-press at Nableh, not far from 
Kefr Saba, the Antipatris of Paul's time. " Advantage had been taken of a 
ledge of rock; on the upper side, towards the south, a shallow vat had been 
dug out, eight feet square and fifteen iuches deep, its bottom declining 



362 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Matthew. 



slightly towards the north. The thickness of rock left on the north was 
one foot; and two feet lower down on that side another smaller vat was ex- 
cavated, four feet square by three feet deep. The grapes were trodden in 
the shallow upper vat, and the juice drawn off by a hole at the bottom (still 
remaining) into the lower vat. . . . Such is its state of preservation that, 
were there still grapes in the vicinity, it might at once be brought into use 
without repair." — Biblical Researches, vol. hi, p. 137. 

The grapes were put into the upper part of the wine-press, and trodden 
by the feet of men. Reference is made to this in Judges ix, 27 ; Neh. xiii, 
15 ; Amos ix, 13. At least two trod together, and often seven or more. 




141.— Wise-press. Feom an ancient Egyptian painting, Thebes. 



To tread " the wine-press alone " was an expression indicative of desolation. 
Isa. lxiii, 3. The treaders usually supported themselves by ropes which 
hung from a cross-beam over their heads. Some think a reference to this 
custom is made in Isa. lxiii. 5, where it is said, " my fury, it upheld me ; " 
the idea being that there were no ropes on which this lonely treader could 
hang, but that he was sustained solely by the strength of his passion. 

The pressure of the grapes by the feet naturally spattered the red juice 
over the upper garments. Thus we read of Judah in the prophecy of the 
dying Jacob: " He washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood 
of grapes." Gen. xlix, 11. Thus also the question is asked in Isaiah: 
" Wherefore art thou red in thine apparel, and thy garments like him that 
treadeth in the winefat ? " Isa. lxiii, 2. The grape-treaders accompanied 
their labors with songs and shouts. See note on Isa. xvi, 10. 

4. The tower was designed as a place of temporary dwelling for the 
guard, who watched over the vineyard while the fruit was ripening, to keep 
off thieves and wild beasts. It was also sometimes used as a temporary 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 363 

abode by the owner during the season of vintage. Though many of the 
towers were frail edifices, scarcely lasting longer than one season, others 
were more durable, being built of stone. They were either circular or square 
in shape, and varied in height from fifteen feet to fifty. In a garden near 
Beirut Maundrel) saw an unfinished tower, which had been built to the 
height of about sixty feet, and was twelve feet thick. These lofty towers 
could be used not only as guard-houses for the vineyards, but also as watch- 
towers, to detect the coming of an enemy in the distance. Similar towers 
were budt in the open country for the protection of the shepherds. See note 
on 2 Chron. xxvi, 10. 

The vineyard, the hedge, the wine-press, and the tower, are also referred 
to in Isa. v, 1, 2. 

691.— DOUBLE INVITATIONS. 
XXII, 3. Sent forth his servants to call them that were bidden 
to the wedding. 

This double invitation was customary among the wealthy in giving enter- 
tainments, and is still observed in some parts of the East. The invitation 
is given some little time in advance, as with us, and when the feast is ready 
a servant comes again with the announcement of the fact. Esther invited 
Ahasuerus and Haman to a feast, and when it was ready the king's cham- 
berlains were sent to notify Haman. Compare Esther v, 8 ; vi, 14. The cus- 
tom also finds illustration in the parable of the Great Supper narrated by 
Luke, which some expositors consider identical with this, though others treat 
the two accounts as belonging to separate parables. The narrative in Luke 
says: " A certain man made a great supper, and bade many: and sent his 
servant at supper-time, to say to them that were bidden, Come, for all things 
are now ready." Luke xiv, 16, 17. Here the two invitations are distinctly 
marked. Additional interest is given to this parable by the fact that the 
second invitation was given only to those who had accepted the first. 

692.— HOST AND GUESTS. 
XXII, 11. When the king came in to see the guests, he saw 
there a man which had not on a wedding-garment. 

1. It was customary for monarchs and others who gave magnificent ban- 
quets to come in to see the guests after they were assembled Allusiou is 
doubtless made to this custom in the text, and also in Luke xiv, 10: " When 
he that bade thee cometh." The context plainly intimates that the guests had 
assembled aud occupied their places before the host made his appearance. 

2. The surprise manifested by the king at finding one of the guests with- 
out a suitable garment, when it could not be expected that people who had 
thus been suddenly called, and from the poorer classes too, would furnish 



364: BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

themselves with festive apparel, is an indication that the bounty of the king 
had provided a supply for the guests from his own wardrobe. The beauty of 
the parable, as well as its deep spiritual significance, is more clearly seen in 
the fact that beggars are represented as clothed in the garments of royalty! 
Although there is no direct evidence to show that it was customary thus to 
furnish wedding-guests with robes, the intimation is clearly made in the 
parable, and there are, in profane history, accounts of kingly generosity of a 
character somewhat similar. Extensive wardrobes were a part of Eastern 
wealth. See note on Job xxvii, 16. Garments were often given as pres- 
ents; it was a special mark of honor to receive one which had been used 
by the giver, and kings sometimes showed their munificence by presenting 
them. See notes on Gen xlv, 22; 1 Sarn. xviii, 4 ; Esther vi, 8. 

«93.— THE PHARISEES. 
XXII, 15. Then went the Pharisees, and took counsel how 
they might entangle him. in his talk. 

The Pharisees were a politico-religious party among the Jews. Their ori- 
gin is involved in obscurity, but it is commonly supposed that the beginning 
of the party dates from a time shortly after the Babylonish Captivity. A 
Pharisee is, literally, one who is separated ; and it is thought that the name 
was given because these people separated themselves from all Levitical im- 
purity. They were doubtless a pure people in the beginning, their design 
being to preserve the law from violatiou, and the Jewish people from con- 
tamination. As their influence increased, and political power came iuto their 
hands, they lost much of their original simplicity. In the time of Christ 
they were very numerous and influential, and occupied the chief offices 
among the Jews. They were divided into two schools : the School of Hillel, 
and the School of Shammai. 

The Pharisees were especially distinguished for belief in an Oral Law of 
Moses, as well as a Written Law. This Oral Law was supposed to be sup- 
plementary to the Written Law, and, with various comments added from time 
to time, had been handed down by tradition. The Pharisees had great ven- 
eration for this traditionary code, and for the traditionary interpretations. 
They placed them in authority on a level with the Written Law, and even 
above it. See note on Matt, xv, 3. As a body, they were not chargeable 
with immorality in life ; ou the contrary, there were many zealous and con- 
scientious men among them, and many things which they taught were 
worthy of being observed, as Jesus himself admitted. See Matt, xxiii, 3. 
These teachings were from the law ; it was when they attempted to make 
their traditions valid that Jesus denounced them. The great error of the 
most of them consisted in substituting human tradition for divine law. and 
in observing mere external forms, many of them of a most wearisome as 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 365 

well as puerile character, instead of seeking for inward purity of heart, 
which would have been accompanied by corresponding blamelessness in life. 
It was but natural that such teachers should be bitterly opposed to Christ, 
and that he should vehemently denounce them and warn the people against 
them. They endeavored in various ways to "entangle him in his talk," 
(literally, to ensnare or entrap him,) and in every possible manner they ex- 
hibited their hatred. His stinging rebukes tingled in their ears and rankled 
in their hearts, and made them threaten his life. 

694.— THE HERODIANS. 
XXII, 16. They sent out unto him their disciples, with the 
Herodians. 

These Herodians were rather a political than a religious party. They 
were Jews who attached themselves to the political fortunes of the Herodian 
family, hoping thereby to promote the interests of the Jewish people. They 
were not very strict in observing the requirements of the Jewish ritual ; 
and, although in this respect they were the opposite of the Pharisees, they 
easily united with that powerful body in efforts to ruin Jesus, as appears 
from this verse in connection with the fifteenth. See also Mark iii, 6 ; 
xii, 13. Some suppose, from comparing Matt, xvi, 6, with Mark viii, 15, 
that the Herodians were ail Sadducees; that they belonged to what is known 
as the Bcethusian branch of that body. 

695.— THE SADDUCEES. 
XXII, 23. The same day came to him the Sadducees, which 
say that there is no resurrection. 

The time when the Sadducees appeared as a party among the Jews is un- 
known. It is generally supposed that they had their origin about the same 
time as the Pharisees. The derivation of the name is a matter of dispute. 
Some derive it from the Hebrew tsedek, " righteousness," and suppose that the 
name was given because of their piety. Others say that the Sadducees were 
organized by Zadoc, a scholar of Antigonus Socho, president of the Sanhe- 
drim, and a disciple of Simon the Just. This Zadoc died B. C. 263, and from 
him the name Sadducee is thought to be derived. Others seek a derivation 
from Zadok the priest, who lived in the time of David. See 1 Kings i, 32. 

The vital point of difference between the Pharisees and the Sadducees 
was in their opinion of the Law. The Sadducees rejected the traditionary 
interpretations of the law, to which the Pharisees attached so much impor- 
tance. They did not believe in any Oral Law as a supplement to the Writ- 
ten Law, but they took the Hebrew Scriptures, with the authoritative ex- 
planations which were developed in the course of time, as the only rule of 
faith and practice. They accepted those traditional explanations of the law 

-23 



366 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew 

which could be deduced from the Scriptures, but rejected all which the 
Pharisees, without authority, had added. In some respects they were more 
rigid interpreters of the law than the Pharisees. A number of illustrations 
of this are given by Dr. G-insburg, in his article on "Sadducees," in Kitto's 
Cyclopedia. 

The Sadducees denied the doctrine of the resurrection because they con- 
sidered there was no proof of it in the Hebrew Scriptures. "Whether they 
also denied the soul's immortality, as is commonly represented, is a point on 
which critics are not agreed. The statement in Acts xxiii, 8, is sometimes ad- 
duced as proof of this denial: "For the Sadducees say that there is no res- 
urrection, neither angel, nor spirit : but the Pharisees confess both." It is 
claimed, however, that this does not show that the Sadducees did not believe 
in angelic or spiritual existence, but that they did not believe in any manifes- 
tation of the angels or spirits to human beings in their own day. Reuss, in 
Herzog's Reol-Encylrfopadie, s. v. Sadducder, suggests that the ninth verse 
gives a key to the interpretation of the eighth. The Pharisaic scribes there 
admit the possibility of a spirit or an angel having spoken to Paul. The 
Sadducees might easily deny the reality of such appearances in their day 
without denying the actual existence of such beings, or the accounts of their 
appearances which are given in the Old Testament. This opinion is adopted 
by Twistleton in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, and also by Dr. Milligan in 
Fairbairn's Imperial Bible Dictionary. 

The Sadducees were not so numerous as the Pharisees, nor were their 
doctrines so acceptable to the people. They were an aucient priestly aris- 
tocracy, having considerable wealth and great political power. From Acts 
v, 17, compared with iv, 6, it has been inferred that many of the kindred of 
the high priest at that time, as well as himself, were of the Sadducean party, 
and that probably the priestly families in general belonged to them. They 
were too cold and austere in their manners to make many converts, and 
disappeared from history about the close of the First Century of the Chris- 
tian era. 

696.— SUMMARY OF THE LAW. 

XXII, 40. On these two commandments hang all the law and. 
the prophets. 

1. It was customar3 r among the Jews to hang a copy of their laws in a 
public place, and some commentators suppose an allusion to this custom to 
be made here. 

?.. Jewish, teachers have at various times attempted to make compen- 
diums of the law. Tholuck gives a very interesting account of one of the 
most remarkable of these made by Rabbi Samlai. and contained in the 
Gemara. The following is a condensed statement of Samlai's compendium 



Matthew.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



367 



of the law: Moses gave six hundred and thirteen commandments on Mount 
Sinai. David reduced these commandments to eleven, which may be found 
in the fifteenth Psalm, in answer to the question, "Lord, who shall abide in 
thy tabernacle?" Afterward Isaiah came and reduced the eleven to six, 
as may be seen in Isa. xxxiii, 15. Then came Micah and reduced the six to 
three. See Micah vi, 8. Once more Isaiah brought down the three to two. 
Isa. lvi, 1. Lastly came Habakkuk, and reduced them all to one : " The 
just shall live by faith." Hab. ii, 4. See Tholuck's Commentary on the Ser- 
mon on the Mount, (Am. Ed.,) p. 139. 



69T— PHYLACTERIES. 
XXIII, 5. They make broad their phylacteries. 

"Whether the commands in Exod. xiii, 9, 16; Deut. vi, 8; and xi, 18, con- 
cerning the duty of binding the word upon the hand and head, were de- 
signed to be interpreted figuratively or literally, is a disputed point among 
commentators. The Jews have for ages attached to them a literal meaning, 
though some writers claim that this was not done until after the captivity. 
Whatever the original design of the injunction may have been, in the time of 
the Saviour it was supposed by all the Jews (excepting the Karaites, who 
gave to the passages above cited a figurative meaning) to be a duty to wear 
upon their persons certain portions of the law. 

The passages selected were Exod. xiii, 1-10; Exod. xiii, 11-16; Deut. vi, 
4-9; and Deut. xi, 13-21. These four sections were written in Hebrew on 
strips of parchment with ink prepared especially for the purpose. There were 
two sorts of phylacieries 
— one for the arm. and one 
for the head. That f»r the 
arm consisted of one strip 
of parchment on which 
the above texts were writ- 
ten. This was inclosed 
in a small square case of 
parchment or black calf- 
skin, and fastened with a 
long, narrow leather strap 142.— Phylactemes for the Head and Arm. 

to the inside of the arm, between the bend of the elbow and the shoulder, 
that when the arm touched the body the law might be near the heart. The 
strap was carefully wound around the arm and the fingers until the ends came 
out by the tip of the middle finger. The Sudducees, however, wore the phy- 
lacteries in the palm of the left hand instead of on the arm. The case for 
the forehead consisted of four cells, and had four strips of parchment on 
which the before-mentioned texts were written. It was fastened bj r leather 




3H8 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

straps on the forehead, between the eyes, and near the roots of the hair; or, 
as the rabbins say, " where the pnlse of an infant's brain is." 

The phylacteries were worn by the men only. The common people wore 
them only during prayers, but the Pharisees wore them continually ; and as 
they sought by inclosing the parchment strips in larger boxes than ordi- 
nary to attract the attention of the people, the Saviour denounces them for 
making "broad their phylacteries." He does not condemn the wearing 
them, but the ostentation connection with it. They became badges of vanity 
and hypocrisy ; and, not unlikely, were used as amulets, though some writers 
deny this. 

Modern Jews continue the use of the phylacteries, which they call tephillin; 
that is, prayer -fillets, because they use them in time of prayer. 

698.— PLACES OF HONOR. 
XXIII, 6. The chief seats in the synagogue. See also Mark xii, 39; 
Luke xi, 43 ; xx, 46. 

These "chief seats" were seats of honor which were prepared for the 
elders of the synagogue and for the doctors of the law, and hence called, in 
the second verse of this chapter, " Moses' seat." They were placed in front 
of the ark, which contained the law, in the uppermost part of the synagogue, 
at the "Jerusalem end." See note on Matt, iv, 23. Luke calls them "up- 
permost seats." Those who occupied them sat with their faces to the 
people. These seats were considered positions of great honor, and were 
eagerly sought by the ambitious scribes and Pharisees. It is probable that 
James refers to this custom of honor in the Jewish synagogue when he 
speaks of "a good place," where the rich man is invited to sit in the Chris- 
tian "assembly," or synagogue, as it is in the original. See James ii, 2, 3. 

699.— RABBI. 
XXIII, 7. To be called, of men, Rabbi, Rabbi. 

This was a title of distinction given to teachers, and literally means Mas- 
ter, or Teacher. It is supposed to have been introduced during our Lord's 
ministry. Lightfoot says: "We do not too nicely examine the precise time 
when this title began ; be sure it did not commence before the schism arose 
between the schools of Shammai and Hillel ; and from that schism, perhaps, 
it had its beginning." — Horoz Hebraicoz. Gamaliel I., who was patriarch in 
Palestine from A. D. 30-50, was the first who was honored with this title. 
It will thus be seen that Jesus was assailing a new fashion which had come 
into use in his own time. 

There were three forms of the title used : Rab, Rabbi, Rabbon : respect- 
ively meaning, Master, My Master, Our Master. The j recise difference 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 369 

between these terras, in their practical application, is not, however, very clear. 
Ginsburg, in Kitto's Cyclopedia, s. v. Rabbi, quotes from two ancient Babylo- 
nian Jews to the effect that the title Rab is Babylonian, and was given to 
those Babylonian sages who received the laying-on of hands in their col- 
leges ; while Rabbi is the title given to the Palestinian sages, who re- 
ceived it with the laying-on of hands of the Sanhedrim. They also state 
that Rab is the lowest title, Rabbi next higher, and Rabbon highest of all, 
and given only to the presidents. 

There is, however, a different explanation of these titles given in the 
Aruch, or Talmudical lexicon. According to this, a Rabbi is one who has 
disciples, and whose disciples again have disciples. When he is so old that 
his disciples belong to a past generation, and are thus forgotten, he is called 
Rabbon ; and when the disciples of his disciples are forgotten he is simply 
called by his own name. 

These distinctions probably belong to a later age than Christ's miuistr} r . 
The terms Rabbi and Rabbon seem to have been used with the same general 
meaning. Jesus was called both. See John i, 38 ; xx, 16. 

Witsius states that the title was generally conferred with a great deal of 
ceremony. Besides the imposition of hands by the delegates of the Sanhe- 
drim, the candidate was first placed in a chair a little raised above the 
company ; there were delivered to him a key and a table-book : the key as 
a symbol of the power and authority conferred upon him to teach others, 
and the table-book as a symbol of his diligence in his stud'es. The key he 
afterward wore as a badge of honor, and when he died it was buried with 
him. — Border's Oriental Literature, No. 1,220. 

700.— HYPOCRISY. 
XXIII, 14. Woe unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites ! 
for ye devour widows' houses, and for a pretense make long 
prayer. See also Mark xii, 40 ; Luke xx, 47. 

1. The scribes and Pharisees had peculiar facilities for obtaining property 
under false pretenses. The scribes, on account of their knowledge of law, 
were often consulted on property questions; and the Pharisees, by reason of 
their supposed piety, exercised great influence over the people. Those who 
were inexperienced in business intrusted their property to these men for 
safe keeping, and mauy lost by it. 

2. Some of the Pharisees prayed an hour, besides meditating an hour be- 
fore and an hour after prayer. This, repeated three times a day, made nine 
hours spent in pretentious devotion. One of the rabbis says : " Since, there- 
fore, they spent nine hours every day about their prayers, how did they per- 
form the rest of the law? and how did they take care of their worldly 
affairs? Why, herein — in being religious, both the law was performed nnd 



370 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. LMatthew. 

their own business well provided for." And again : " Long prayers make a 
long life." — Lightfoot, Horoz Hebraicce. 

701.— WINE-STRAINING. 

XXIII, 24. Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swal- 
low a camel. 

This would be more correctly rendered by "strain out a gnat." The at is 
supposed to have been originally a typographical error, which has since been 
universally copied. Alford, however, doubts this, and supposes that it " was 
a deliberate alteration, meaning, ' strain [out the wine] at [the occurrence of] 
a gnat.' " In either case the meaning is the same. The reference here is 
to an old proverb,, which, in turn, refers to an old custom. The Jews, in 
common with other Oriental people, strained their wine before drinking it, 
not only to keep the lees from the cup, but also to get rid of the insects, 
which, in a hot climate, collected around the fluid. 

Wincklemann describes an instrument, evidently intended for a wine-strain- 
er, and which was found in the ruins of Herculaneum. It is made of white 
metal, of elegant workmanship, and consists of two round and deep plates, 
about four inches in diameter, with flat handles. Plates and handles fit into 
each other so exactly that when put together they seem to make but one 
vessel. The upper plate is perforated, and the wine, passing through the 
holes, fell into the deeper vessel below, whence it was drawn into drhoking- 
cups. The dregs and insects remained on the upper plate. 

702.— WHITEWASHED TOMBS. 
XXIII, 27. Ye are like unto whited sepulchres, which indeed 
appear beautiful outward, but are within full of dead men's 
bones, and of all uneleanness. 

The tombs were whitened with lime, so that they could be easily distin- 
guished, and tints prevent the Jews from being ceremonially defiled by ap- 
proaching them. See Num. xix, 18. This whitewash became soiled and 
washed off by the rains, and it was therefore necessary to renew it at in- 
tervals. This was usually done in the middle of the month Adar, when the 
streets and sewers were mended. 

It is still customary in Palestine to whitewash the tombs. Mohamme- 
dans, as well as Jews, are very particular about this. See engraving on the 
opposite page. 

703.— DECORATED TOMBS. 

XXIII, 29. Ye build the tombs of the prophets, and garnish 
the sepulchres of the righteous. 

The Jews not only whitewashed the tombs, but, in common with other 
peoples, they ornamented them in various ways. This is still customary in 



Matthew..; 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



the East. The graves of the most eminent Mohammedan saints are each 
covered with a stone or brick edifice called welee. It has a dome or cupola 




143. — Sheik's Tomb. 

over it, varying in height from eight to ten feet. Within lamps are often 
hung, and the grave proper is covered with carpet and strings of beads. 
Sometimes more costlv ornamentation is used. 



704.— HEROD'S TEMPLE. 
XXIV, 1. Jesus went out, and departed, from the temple : and 
his disciples came to him for to show him the buildings of 
the temple. See also Mark xiii, 1 ; Luke xxi, 5. 

This is what is commonly known as Herod's temple, and was a restoration 
or reconstruction of the temple of Zerubbabel ; that structure being taken 
down piecemeal, and this gradually substituted for it. It was, however, 
larger and more splendid than the temple of Zerubbabel ; its courts oc- 
cupied more ground than those which surrounded that old temple, and far 
exceeded them in magnificence. 

According to the Talmud the entire temple area was five hundred cubits 
square. Around the edge of this square, and against the massive stone wall 
which inclosed it, cloisters were built, (1, 2, 3. 4,*) their cedar roofs being 
supported by rows of Corinthian columns of solid marble. The cloisters on 

* The figures refer to the corresponding figures on the diagram. See next page. 



372 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Matthew. 




144. — Grouxd-plan of Herod's Temple. 



1. North Cloister. 

2. West Cloister. 

3. Solomon's Porch. 

4. King's Porch. 

5. Court of the Gentiles, 
ti. Wall of Separation. 

7. Platform. 

8. Beautiful Gate. 



9. Court of the Women. 

10. Court of the Israelites. 

11. Court of the Priests. 

12. Great Altar of Burnt-Oflfering. 

13. Porch of the Temple. 

14. Holy Place. 

15. Most Holy Place. 



the north, west, and east sides (1, 2, 3) were alike in height and width, the 
columns which upheld the roof being twenty-five cubits high, ai d the halls 
themselves thirty cubits wide. The colonnade on the east (3) was called 
Solomon's Porch, and is mentioned in John x, 23 ; Acts iii, 11 ; v, 12. The 
cloisters on the south (4) formed an immense building known as the Stoa 
Basilica, or King's Porch. It was much wider than the cloisters on the 
other sides, and consisted of a nave and two aisles. This immense buildinar, 
with its high nave, its broad aisles, and its marble columns, presented a 
grand appearance. Josephus says : " Its fineness, to such as had not seen it, 
was incredible; and to such as had seen it was greatly amazing." The south- 
eastern corner of this building is supposed to have been the "pinnacle of the 
temple," where the devil took Jesus in the Temptation. See note on Matt. 
iv 5. In these cloisters the Leviles resided. Here the doctors of the law 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 373 

met to hear and answer questions. See Luke ii, 46. They were favorite 
places of resort for religionists of different sorts to discuss various points of 
doctrine. Jesus often spoke here to the people ; and after his death his fol- 
lowers met here. See Acts ii, 46. 

North of the center of the large area inclosed by these cloisters stood the 
sacred inclosure of the temple, its boundaries extending nearer to the cloisters 
on the west than to Solomon's Porch on the east. The space surrounding 
this inclosure was the Court of the Gentiles (5), and was open to all 
comers. It was paved with stones of various colors. It was here that the 
cattle-dealers and money-changers desecrated the house of God. See note on 
Matt, xxi, 12. This court was also called the Outer Court, the Lower 
Court, and, by the rabbins usually, the " Mountain of the Lord's house." 

The inclosure of the temple proper was on a terrace about six cubits 
higher than the Court of the Gentiles. It was approached by steps, and 
was surrounded by a wall three cubits high (6). This wall was designed 
to shut off the Gentiles, and there were pillars erected in the wall at cer- 
tain distances with inscriptions in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, warning all 
Gentiles to come no further under penalty of death. The Jews, on one oc- 
casion, accused Paul of having brought "Greeks" up the steps, and into 
the sacred inclosure, in violation of the standing order. See Acts xxi, 28. 
To this wall of separation Paul is thought to refer: "For he is our peace, 
who hath made both one, and hath broken down the middle wall of partition 
between us." Kph. ii, 14. At the top of the terrace, and going entirely 
around ir. was a platform (7) ten cubits wide extending to auother wall. 

In the eastern side of ihe latter wall was a gate (8) of elegant workman- 
ship, forty cubits wide, and supposed to have been the "Gate Beautiful," 
mentioned in Acts iii, 2, 10. It was sometimes called the "Ga'e Susan," 
because it had a representation of the town of Susa sculptured in relief on 
it. Though there were gates on the north and south sides, this was the 
grand entrance to the Court of the Women (9), which was the general place 
of public worship at the time of the sacrifices. It received its name, not be- 
cause it was exclusively appropriated to the women, but because the women 
were not allowed to go beyond it. There were smaller courts in the four 
corners of this ; and on the north, east, and west sides were galleries supported 
by columns. In front of these columns were distributed the eleven treasure 
chests of the temple, in addition to the two at the gate Susan, for the half- 
shekel tax. It was into one of these that the poor widow threw her two 
mites. Mark xii, 41, 42 ; Luke xxi, 1, 2. It was near these treasure chests 
that the incidents recorded in the eighth chapter of John took place. See 
John viii. 20. 

West of the Court of the Women, separated from it by a wall, and on a 
terrace higher still, was the Court of the Israelites (10). This was a narrow 



374 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

hall completely surrounding the Court of the Priests, and had cloisters on 
all sides supported by beautiful columns. The rooms of these cloisters 
were devoted to various purposes connected with the service of the temple. 
This court was entered from the Court of the "Women by a flight of semi- 
circular steps and through the Gate of Nicanor. The session room of the 
Sanhedrim was in the souih-east corner of the Court of the Israelites. 

On a terrace fifteen steps higher still, and separated from the Court of the 
Israelites by a low stone balustrade, was the Court of the Priests (11). In 
the eastern part of this was the great altar of burnt-offering (12), directly 
west of which arose the Great Temple itself. The building was of white 
marble, and some of the foundation-stones were of immense size. It was 
divided into two parts, forming the Holy Place (14) and the Most Holy 
Place (15), the two being separated by a vail. See note on Matt, xxvii, 51. 
The internal arrangements of these two sacred places were probably like those 
of the temple of Zerubbabel. See note on Ezra vi, 3, 4. Above these were 
rooms used for various purposes, and on the sides were three stories of 
chambers. In the front part of the building was the porch (13), which pro- 
jected a short distance beyoud the building, north and south, giving it this 
form : -J 

A striking feature in the general appearance of the temple and its various 
courts is the series of terraces ; the different courts rising one above the 
other, until the temple itself was reached on a platform highest of all. The 
structure — the paved courts, the beautiful columns, the white marble clois- 
ters, the gate-ways, which in themselves were high and massive buildings, 
and, crowning all, the white temple standing high above the rest, its front 
walls ornamented with thick plates of gold — produced an effect which was 
magnificent beyond description. See, further, note on Luke xxi, 5. 

705.— GETTING DOWN FROM THE HOUSE-TOP. 

XXIY, 17. Let him which is on the housetop not come down 
to take any thing out of his house. See also Mark xiii, 15; Luke 
xvii,31. 

Some commentators have endeavored to show how those who were on 
the flat tops of the houses might escape without coming down, by going over 
the roofs of the other houses until they reached the city wall. But a com- 
parison with the narrative as given by Mark nnd Luke shows that the di- 
rection was intended as a caution against stopping in any of the rooms of the 
house on their way down in order to collect their valuables. Mark's ac- 
count says : "Let him that is on the housetop not go down into the house, 
neither enter therein, to take any thing out of his house." Luke has, "In 
that day, he which shall be upon the housetop, and his stuff in the house, let 
him not come down to take it away." Thevare not told that thev are not to 



Matthew.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



375 



come down in order to escape, but they are not to come down for the purpose 
of entering the house. According to our method of building it would be 
impossible to come down from the roof without entering the house; but in 
the Oriental houses there are stairs on the outside of the house landing in 
the court, from which one could escape into the street through the porch. 
Occasionally, though not often, we are told of stairs which come directly 
from the roof on the street side of the house into the street below. Some 
travelers deny the existence of such external stairs, while others positively 
affirm it. Anderson, for instance, says : " The house in which I lodged in 
Jerusalem had an outer as well as an inner stair, by which, without de- 
scending into the court, I could at any time go out into the street." 
— Bible Light from Bible Lands, p. 183. 



706.— THE MILL. 
Two women shall be grinding at the mill. 



See also Luke 



rom 
The 




Section of Eastern IL 
Mill. 



XXIV, 41. 
xvii,35. 

The ordinary hand-mill of the East consists of two circular stone 
eighteen inches to two feet in diameter and about six inches deep 
lower, or "nether," is sometimes, though not 
always, of heavier and harder stone than 
the upper. See Job xli, 24. The upper, or 
" rider," is slightly concave, and covers like 
the lid of a vessel the lower, which is con- 
vex. From the center of the lower stone 145 
there rises a pivot, on which the upper stone 
revolves. Near .the edge of the upper stone is the perpendicular stick or 
handle by which it is turned, and at the center is a hole for the pivot, and 
also for the grain to fall through upon the stone below. The lower stone 
has a projection on a part of the edge two or three inches long, slanting 
downward, and hollowed so as to carry off the meal. 

The work of grinding meal is usually performed by the women, and is 
very laborious. Sometimes one works alone, but usually two work together, 
sitting on the ground with the millstones between them, and both taking 
hold of the handle and moving it entirely around, to and from them. The 
usual time for grinding is at early dawn, or else at the evening in preparation 
for the following day. The stones, as they crush the grain, send forth a grat- 
ing sound, which, though not very musical in itself, is melodious enough to a 
hungry traveler. Reference is made to this noise in Eccl. xii, 4; Jer. xxv, 10 ; 
Rev. xviii, 22. In addition to this, the women often sing while grinding. 

The women who ground were, among the families of wealth, either slaves 
or the lowest servants. Thus, in Exod. xi, 5, we read of " the maid-servant that 
is behind the mill." In this passage the expression li behind the mill" can 



376 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Matthew. 



be readily understood by what is said above of the position of the servants 
when grindiug. The prophet Isaiah represents the "virgin daughter of 

Babylon " as compelled to sit on the ground 
like a servant to grind meaL See Isa. xlvii, 
1, 2. We also have more vividly brought 
before us the indignity which the Philis- 
tines put on Samson when they compelled 
him to "grind in the prison-house." See 
note on Judges xvi. 21. 

The millstones were considered so im- 
portant and necessary a part of household 
furniture that the Mosaic law would not 
allow them to be pawned. " No man 
shall take the nether or the upper mill- 
stone to pledge : for hetaketh a man's life 
to pledge." Dent. xxiv. 6. 




146. — Women Grinding Corn- witu 
the Hand-mill of modern Syria. 



707.- MARRIAGE PROCESSION. 
XXV, 1. Ten virgins, which took their lamps, and went forth to 
meet the bridegroom. 

On the occasion of a marriage the bridegroom, attended by his friends, 
went to the house of his bride, and brought her with her friends in joyful 
procession to his own house. The virgins mentioned in the text were prob- 
ably some of the friends of the bride, who were to meet and join the proces- 
sion at some convenient place. 



708.— TORCHES. 
XXV, 3, 4. They that were foolish took their lamps, and took 
no oil with them ; but the wise took oil in their vessels with 
their lamps. 

It is difficult to tell whether lamps proper or torches are here meant. The 
rabbins speak of a staff used on such occasions, on top of which was a brazen 
dish containing rags, oil, and pitch. Chardin says that, in many places of the 
East, instead of torches they carry a pot of oil in one hand and a lamp full 
of oily rags in the other. The account given by Forbes is similar. He says: 
"The massaul or torch in India is composed of coarse rags rolled up to the 
size of an English flambeau, eighteen or twenty inches long, fixed in a brass 
handle. This is carried in the left hand; in the right the massaulchee (or 
torch-bearer) holds a brass vessel containing the oil, with which he feeds tl:e 
flame as occasion requires." — Oriental Memoirs, vol. ii, p. 417. 

Whether these virgins carried torches, or merely lamps, as some com- 
mentators suppose, they needed a supply of oil to replenish their light, an 1 




147. — Marriage Procession. 




148.— Torches 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 379 

hence were obliged to carry "vessels" to contain the supplies of oil. Great 
efforts are made to have an abundance of light at Oriental weddings, which 
always take place at night. Reference is made to this custom of night-wed- 
dings, not only in these two verses, but also in the first verse, and in the 
fifth and sixth verses. Lamps, torches, and lanterns are freely used in the 
marriage procession, and also at the house of the bridegroom, where the 
ceremony is performed. Only vegetable oil, chiefly olive, is used for illum- 
inating purposes. 

709.— THE CLOSED DOOR. 
XXV, 10. The bridegroom came ; and. they that were ready 
went in with him to the marriage : and the door was shut. 

At all formal banquets the invited guests presented their tablets or cards 
to a servant stationed at the entrance-door for the purpose, care being taken 
to keep out uninvited spectators. When the company were assembled the 
"master of the house" shut the door, and after that the servant was not 
allowed to admit any one, no matter how great the importunity. This illus- 
trates not only the text, but also Luke xiii, 24, 25. 

710.— SHEEP AND GOATS. 
XXV, 32. He shall separate them one from another, as a shep- 
herd divideth his sheep from the goats. 

Sheep and goats are allowed to mingle during the day while at pasturage, 
but at night are separated. Thus the Saviour seeks to illustrate the truth 
that though righteous and wicked are now together, there will come a time 
of separation. 

711.— THE ACQUITTED AND THE CONVICTED. 

XXV, 33. He shall set the sheep on his right hand, but the goats 
on the left. 

Some think there is a reference here to a custom in the Sanhedrim of 
putting the acquitted prisoners on the right of the president, and those who 
were convicted on his left. If so, the illustration of the text is derived from 
two customs ; the separation of the two classes being taken from the shep- 
herds, and their position from the Sanhedrim. 

712.— ALABASTRA— OINTMENTS— RECLINING AT MEALS. 

XXVI, 7. There came unto him a woman having an alabaster 
box of very precious ointment, and poured it on his head as he 
sat at meat. See also Mark xiv, 3 ; John xii, 3. 

A similar incident, though occurring at another time and place, is recorded 
in Luke vii, 36-38. 

1. In Alabastron, in Egypt, vessels were anciently made of a peculiar 
stone, a kind of soft, white marble, which was found in that vicinity, and 
which was supposed to be specially adapted to preserve the odor of perfumed 



180 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Matthew. 




149. — AtABASTRA. 



ointments. The Greeks named the vessels from the town where they were 
made. The stone afterward was called by the same name, and at length all 
perfume vessels, of whatever form or substance, were called alabastra. They 
have been found made of gold, glass, ivory, bone, and shells. Specimens of 
these ancient perfume-boxes, or vases, made of alabaster and of other mate- 
rials, some of them richly ornamented, are in the British Museum, and also 
in the Abbott Collection, New York. 

The alabastra were of 
various shapes and sizes, ^^ 

though they were com* 
monly long and slender 
at the top, and round and 
full at the bottom, like a 
Florentine oil-Mask. Ac- 
cording to Epiphanius, 
the alabastron ordinarily 
used for fragrant oint- 
ments contained about 
half a pint. 

2. The Eastern people not only make a free use of simple oil for the purpose 
of anointing, (see note on Psa. xxiii, 5.) but they prepare fragrant ointments 
some of which are very costly. The custom is very old. and prevails among 
various nations. Even among the rude Parthians the kings had a t: royal 
ointment," which Rawlinson describes as " composed of cinnamon, spike- 
nard, myrrh, cassia, gum styrax, saffron, cardamom, wine, honey, and sixteen 
other ingredients." He does not, however, give them the credit of inventing 
this odoriferous compound, but suspects that they adopted it from the more 
refined Persians, whose "monarch applied to his own person an ointment 
composed of the fat of lions, palm-wine, saffron, and the herb lidianihus 
which was considered to increase the beauty of the complexion. He carried 
with him, even when he went to the wars, a case of choice unguents, and 
such a treasure fell into the hands of Alexander, with the rest of Darius's 
camp-equipage, at Arbela." — Five Ancient Monarchies, vol. hi, p. 212. 

The holy ointment of consecration among the Jews, though it was not 
permitted to be used for ordinary purposes, gives us an idea of the variety 
of ingredients used in compounding ointments. This "holy anointing oil" 
was composed of myrrh, sweet cinnamon, sweet calamus, cassia, and olive 
oil. See Exod. xxx, 23, 24. 

In later times greater attention seems to have been paid to the perfume 
of the ointments which were used for hospitality or for personal purposes. 
The fragrance of some ointments is said to have remained in the alabastra 
for hundreds of vears. The ointment mentioned in the text is called by Mark 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 383 

'ointment of spikenard," probably because that costly aromatic plant was 
( ne of ihe principal ingredients. 

From Job xii, 31, it appears that the different ingredients of which oint- 
ments were anciently compounded were boiled together. The frgh estima- 
mation in which the more costly ointments were held is manifested not only 
in the expression "very precious" in the text, and in the remarks of the 
disciples as indicated in the eighth and ninth verses, but in several other 
passages. See 2 Kings xx, 13; Psa. cxxxiii, 2; Eccl. vii, 1. That such oint- 
ments were sometimes very expensive is evident from a comparison of John 
xii, 3, 5, where we find that a pound cost three hundred pence. Reckoning 
the penny at fifteen cents, (see note on Matt, xx, 2,) and the pound at twelve 
ounces avoirdupois, (see note on John xii, 3,) this would make the value three 
dollars and seventy-five cents an ounce. The fragrant character of ointment 
is also referred to in Sol. Song i, 3 ; iv, 10; Isa. lvii, 9; Rev. xviii, 13. 

3. The expression i: sat" at meat would be more correctly rendered by 
"reclined," since the guests were lying on a bed, according to the fashion 
of the times. When or by whom the custom of having dinner-beds was intro- 
duced is not known; the Persians usually have the credit of it. The Jews, 
no doubt, learned it from them, as did also the Greeks. The Romans, who 
likewise practiced it, are faid to have derived it from the Carthagehiaus. 
We find reference to the custom in Esther i, 6; vii, 8; and in Ezek. xxi-i, 41. 

Among the Romans three beds were generally used in the dining-room, 
and thus combined were called the triclinium : they were arranged around 
the sides of a square in the center of the dining-room, which was itself 
sometimes called triclinium. The tables were in front of them, and within 
easy reach of the guests, and the left side was open, to allow the servants to 
pass in and out. The triclinia varied in style at different periods. The 
frames on which the couches were placed were sometimes made of costly 
wood and highly ornamented. The beds themselves were stuffed with vari- 
ous substances: straw, hay, leaves, woolly plants, sea-weed, wool, and, among 
the wealthy and luxurious, with feathers and swan's-down. Cushions or 
pillows were placed on the beds, so that the guests might rest the left arm, 
on the elbow of which they usually leaned, the right hand being left free 
to reach the food. See note on John xiii, 23. Some authorities, however, 
state that when the guests began eating they lay flat upon the breast, and 
afterward, when hunger was satisfied, they turned upon the left side, lean- 
ing on the elbow. 

The Romans allowed three guests to each bed, making nine in all. It was 
the rule of Varro that ,s the number of guests ought not to be less than that 
of the Graces, nor to exceed that of the Muses." Sometimes, however, as 
many as four lay on each couch. The Greeks went beyond this number, 
and so did the Jews. 



384 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

The front of the bed was somewhat higher than the table, and as the 
triclinium was on an inclined plane, the feet of the guests lay toward the 
floor. In the incident recorded by Luke the woman anointed the feet of 
Jesus. This she could easily do by passing between the rear of the triclinium 
and the wall of the room. In the account given in the text and its parallels, 
Matthew and Mark speak of the woman's anointing the head of Jesus, while 
John speaks of anointing his feet. By comparing the two accounts it thus 
seems that she anointed both head and feet. She probably first entered the 
passage where the servants waited by the table. Here she could reach the 
head of the Saviour, and then going behind the triclinium she could easily 
find access to his feet, as did the other woman in the house of the other 
Simon mentioned by Luke. 

Reclining on the dinner-bed is also referred to in Matt, ix, 10 ; xxvi, 20 ; 
Mark xiv, 18; xvi, 14; John xii, 2. In all these passages the expression 
" sitting at meat " has the meaning above given. 

The "tables" mentioned in Mark vii, 4, are dinner-beds. 

713.— PIECES OF SILVER. 
XXVI, 15. They covenanted, with him for thirty pieces of silver. 

It is difficult to ascertain what coins are here meant. Mr. Poole, of the 
British Museum, one of the best authorities on numismatics, suggests (see 
Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. Piece of Silver) that the thirty arguria, 
mentioned here and in Matt, xxvii, 3, 5, 6, 9, were not denarii, as many 
commentators suppose, but shekels, and that shekels must also be under- 
stood in the parallel passage of Zech. xi, 12, 13. Thirty shekels of silver 
was the price of blood when a slave was accidentally killed. See Exod. xxi, 32. 
As there were probably no current shekels during our Lord's time, Mr. Poole 
supposes that the tetradrachms of the Greek cities of Syria were the coins 
which composed the thirty pieces of silver paid to Judas. These tetradrachms 
have the same weight as the shekels of Simon Maccabaaus; and the stater 
found by Peter in the fish was a specimen of them. See note on Matt, 
xvii. 27. This would make the sum which Judas received equivalent to 
about eighteen dollars, United States coin, or a little over three pounds ten 
shillings, English. 

714.— PASSOVER GUESTS. 
XXYI, 17. Where wilt thou, that we prepare for thee to eat the 
passo ver ? See also Mark xiv, 12 ; Luke xxii, 9. 

The Israelites who came to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover were 
received by the inhabitants as brothers, and apartments were gratuitously 
furnished them where they might eat the feast. In return, the guests gave 
their hosts the skins of the paschal lambs and the vessels they had used in 



Mitthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 385 

the ceremonies. According to this custom the disciples, wishing to make 
arrangements for the Passover, inquired of the Lord if he had any special 
house in view where he desired to go. 

7 15.— PREPARING FOR THE PASSOVER. 
XXVI, 19. The disciples did. as Jesus had appointed them; and 
they made ready the passover. See also Mark xiv, 16; Luke xxii, 13. 

The two disciple?, Peter and John, who represented the company who, 
with Jesus, were to celebrate the Passover together, went, as was customary, 
to the temple with the paschal lamb. There, taking their turn with others 
who thronged the temple on the same errand, they killed the lamb, the 
nearest priest catching the blood in a gold or silver bowl, and passing it to 
the next in the row of priests until it reached the priest nearest the altar, 
who instantly sprinkled it toward the altar's base. The lamb was then 
flayed aud the entrails removed, to be burnt with incense on the altar. All 
this was done in the afternoon. As soon as it was dark the lamb was 
roasled with great care. Thus the two "made ready the Passover." They 
likewise provided unleavened bread, wine, bitter herbs, and sauce. See also 
note on Exod. xxiii, 15. 

716.— PASSOVER CEREMONIES IN CHRIST'S TIME. 
XXVI, 20. Now when the even was come, he sat down with 
the twelve. See also Mark xiv, IT ; Luke xxii, 14. 

The ceremonies of the Passover supper in the time of Christ were as 
follows : 

1. A cup of wine was rilled for every one of the company, over which he 
who presided at the feast pronounced a blessing, after which the wine was 
drunk. 

2. The bitter herbs, the unleavened bread, the charoseth, and the flesh of 
the chagigah, were then brought in. The charoseth was composed of vinegar 
and water, according to some authorities ; others say that it was a mixture 
of vinegar, figs, almonds, dates, raisins, and spice, beaten to the consistence 
of mortar or clay, to commemorate the toils of the Israelites when they 
worked in the brick-yards of Egypt. The chagigah was a special voluntary 
peace-offering which was made at the Passover and other great festivals. 

3. When these were ail placed upon the table, the president of the feast, 
who in a family celebration of the Passover was the head of the family, took 
a portion of the bitter herbs in his hand, dipped it into the charoseth, and, 
after thanking God for the fruits of the earth, (see note on Matt, xiv, 19,) 
ate a piece the size of an olive, and gave a similar portion to each one, who, 
according to custom, reclined witli him on the dinner-bed. See note on 
Matt, xxvi, 7. (Some Jewish writers say that thev reclined on couches 

-24 



386 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

■while they ate the Passover in order to show that they were no longer 
slaves, but free, and at rest.) The unleavened bread was then handed round, 
and the paschal lamb placed on the table in front of the president. 

4. A second cup of wine was poured out and drank, after which an ex- 
planation of the feast "was given, in accordance with Exod. xii, 26, 27. The 
first part of the "Hallel," or hymn of praise, was then sung. This con- 
sisted of Psalms cxiii and cxiv, and was followed by a blessing. 

5. After the singing, unleavened bread and bitter herbs, dipped in the 
charoseth, were eaten. Then the flesh of the chagigah was eaten, and next 
the paschal lamb. A third cup of wine was then poured out and drank, 
and soon after a fourth. After the fourth cup the rest of the " Hallel" was 
sung. This consisted of Psalms cxv to cxviii, and is the " hymn " referred 
to in verse 30 and in Mark xiv, 26. 

It was while partaking of this Passover feast that the Lord's Supper was 
instituted by the Saviour. A number of interesting and important questions, 
some of them of great difficulty, arise in connection with this subject, but 
their discussion would be out of place here. The different standard com- 
mentaries may be consulted for their solution. 

TIT.— CHIEF PRIESTS— ELDERS. 
XXVI, 47. Judas, one of the twelve, came, and with him a 
great multitude with swords and staves, from the chief priests 
and elders of the people. 

1. David divided the whole staff of the Aaronic priesthood into twenty- 
four classes, sixteeu of which belonged to the house of Eleazer and eight 
to that of Ithamar. This arrangement was continued by Solomon, and was 
probably kept up with more or less regularity by his successors. Compare 

1 Chron. xxiv, 1-19, with 2 Chron. viii, 14; xxxv, 4. We find allusion to 
it in the time of Christ, Zacharias, the father of John the Baptist, being a 
priest of " the course of Abia." Luke i, 5. The heads or presidents of 
these twenty-four classes are the "chief priests," of whom mention is made 
in the Old Testament as well as in the New. See 1 Chron. xxiv, 3, 4 ; 

2 Chron. xxvi, 20; Ezra x, 5; Neh. xii. 7, etc. They are called "governors 
of the sanctuary" in 1 Chron. xxiv. 5, and "princes of the sanctuary " in 
Isa. xliii, 28. 

Some authorities affirm that, in the New Testament, the term " chief 
priests " has a broader meaning than that just given ; that it includes not 
only the heads of the twenty-four classes, but also the high priests and ex- 
high priests. Others include those priests who were of the immediate kindred 
of the high priest. See Robinson, New Testament Lexicon, s. v. upxtepevc, 2. 
The Rabbins include among the chief priests the twenty-four heads of the 
"Ephemeries,'' or courses, the heads of the families in' every course, the 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 887 

presidents over the various offices in the temple, and any priests or Levites, 
although not of these orders, that were chosen into the chief council. See 
Lightfoot, Horce Hebraicce, on Matt, ii, 4. 

2. The term "elders." was no doubt originally applied to the heads of 
families, and to the oldest persons in tribes or states. "When it became an 
official title is not known. The elders among the Israelites seem to have 
been recognized as a distinct body very early. See Exod. hi, 16, 18; iv, 29 ; 
xii, 21; Num. xi, 16, 25. They were probably the leading persons in each 
tribe. Traces of them appear all through the Old Testament history. In 
the New Testament the elders of the Jewish, people are often referred to. 
Each synagogue had its company of elders, though there seem to have been 
other officials of the same title not connected with the synagogue. In the 
Sanhedrim they were the representatives of the people, as the " chief priests " 
were representatives of the priesthood. 

The expression "chief priests and elders," sometimes with the word 
"scribes" added and sometimes without, is often used to denote the Great 
Sanhedrim described in the next note. See Matt, xvi, 21; xxi, 23; xxvii, 
1, 12,-41; Mark xv. 1, 31; Luke xxii, 66. 



718.— THE SANHEDRIM. 
XXYI, 59. All the council sought false witness against Jesus, 
to put him to death. 

This was the supreme court of the Jewish nation, which heard appeals 
from inferior courts, and tried cases of greater gravity than those which 
came before them. It is commonly known as the Sanhedrim, though the 
word is sometimes written Sanhedrin, and occasionally Synhedrium, Syne- 
dium, Synedrion. It is the Hebraizing of the Greek word cvvedpiov, a sit- 
ting together, or, as in the text and in numerous other places, a council. 

The number of members in the Sanhedrim is usually considered to have 
been seventy-one, though on this subject there is a diversity of opinion 
among authorities, some fixing the number at seventy, and others at seventy- 
two. Twenty-three members were necessary to make a quorum. 

The origin of this council is thought by some writers to be found in the 
company of seventy elders who were appointed to assist Moses in the gov- 
ernment of the Israelites. See Num. xi, 16, 17. Others, however, deny that 
this could have been the origin of the Sanhedrim, and affirm that the seventy 
elders were only intended to serve a temporary purpose, since no trace of 
them is found after the death of Moses. They could hardly have been 
judges, as the members of the Sanhedrim were, since there were more than 
sixty thousand judges among the Israelites already. See Michjelts, Laws 
of Moses, vol. i, p. 247. Those who agree wi;h Michselis in his views on tliia 



388 BIBLE MAXXEKS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

subject suppose that the Sanhedrim was instituted after the captivity. It 
is quite likely, however, that the council of Moses may have beeu the germ 
from whence the idea of the Sanhedrim was developed. 

The members of the Sanhedrim were chosen from, the chief priests, elders, 
and scribes. It was necessary to have priests and scribes in the body, and 
they were usually quite numerous, though the majority of the members are 
thought to have been laymen. The relative numbers of the three classes 
are not definitely known. The Pharisees and the Sadducees were both repre- 
sented, sometimes the one and sometimes the other being in the majority. 
Most of the scribes probably belonged to the Pharisees. 

Great care was taken in the selection of members, who were required to 
be morally and physically blameless. They were also expected to be learned 
iu law, in sciences, and in languages. It was necessary for them to have 
been judges in their nat ; ve towns ; to have been transferred from there to the 
small Sanhedrim, which met at the temple mount; and thence to the second 
small Sanhedrim, which met at the entrance of the temple hall. They were 
not eligible unless the}' were the fathers of families, in order that they might 
be able to sympathize when cases involving domestic affairs were brought 
before them. If this rule was in force at the time of Stephen's trial, and if, 
as many suppose, Saul of Tarsus was a member of the Sanhedrim at that 
time, then Saul must have been a married man and a father. See Cony- 
beake and Howsox, Life and Epistles of St. Paul, vol. i, p. 71. 

The officers of the Sanhedrim were a president, a vice-president, and a 
sage or referee, all of whom were elected by the members. The president 
was called Nasi, that is, "prince" or "elevated one." He represented the 
civil and religious interests of the Jewish nation before the Roman govern- 
ment abroad, and before the different Jewish congregations at home. In the 
Sanhedrim he occupied the highest seat, summed up the votes of the elders, 
and determined traditions. The high priest was eligible to the office of 
president of the council, but had no right to preside ex officio. He must first 
be elected to the office. The vice-president was called Ab-beth-din, that is, 
"father of the house of judgment." He led and controlled the discussions 
on disputed points. The sage or referee was called Chakam, that is, "wise 
one." It was his duty to put into proper shape the subject for discussion 
and present it to the council. The vice-president sat on the right of the 
president, and the sage or referee on his left. 

The council held daily sessions, lasting from the close of the morning 
sacrifice to the commencement of the evening sacrifice. On Sabbaths and 
festival days, however, they held no sessions. The place of their meeting 
is not precisely known ; it seems to have varied at different times. A num- 
ber of years before the birth of Christ a building was erected within the 
temple inclosure, and called the "Hall of Squares," or "Hall of Stones," 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 389 

because of the square-hewn stones which made the floor. Talmudical 
authorities do not agree as to the position of this hall, whether north or 
south of the temple proper; but all agree that it was situated to the east. 
In the most carefully arranged plans of the temple it is usually put to the 
south-east. Here the Sanhedrim met until shortly before the death of Christ, 
when they removed to a place in the Court of the Gentiles, and were not 
even confined to that. They met in the high-priest's palace when Jesus 
was brought before them. They subsequently settled at Tiberias. 

"When in session the Sanhedrim sat in a semicircle, the officers being in 
the center. The members sat cross-legged on the low cushions, or on carpets 
spread on the floor. 

The council extended its jurisdiction beyond Palestine to every place where 
Jews had settlements. See Acts ix, 1, 2 ; xxii, 5. They could only try cases 
which involved violations of ecclesiastical law. They condemned to corpo- 
real, and also to capital punishments. The latter were restricted to four 
modes : stoning, burning, beheading, and strangling. Forty years before 
the destruction of the temple the power of inflicting capital punishment was 
limited to those cases where the sentence of the Sanhedrim had been con- 
firmed by the Roman procurator. 

The Sanhedrim is often referred to in the New Testament. Besides the 
frequent mention of it in connection with the history of Christ, we find it 
engaged as an instrument of persecuting the apostles. Peter and John were 
brought before it. Acts iv, 1-21. Not long after, all the apostles were 
arraigned. Acts v, 17-42. In a short time Stephen was brought for trial. 
Acts vi, 12-15. Paul also, in later years, stood in the presence of this 
august body. Acts xxii, 30. 

In addition to the great Sanhedrim there were smaller councils, for an 
account of which see note on Matt, x, 17. 

719.— SPITTING— BUFFETING. 
XXYI, 67. Then did they spit in his face, and buffeted him ; 
and others smote him with the palms of their hands. See also 
Mark xiv, 65 ; John xviii, 22. 

1. Spitting in the face was considered the greatest insult that could be 
offered to a person. See Dent, xxv, 9 ; Job xxx, 10. An Oriental, in relat- 
ing any circumstance of which he desires to express the utmost contempt, 
will make a motion with his mouth, as if spitting. 

2. Graham states that, at the present day in Palestine, when men quarrel 
and come to blows they strike each other, not with the fists, but with the 
palms of the hands. The insult offered to Jesus was given in this ordinary 
form ; though, in addition, there were some who buffeted him, or struck him 
with their fist. 



390 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Matthew. 




151. — The Accuser Spits upon and 
Buffets the Accused. 



There is a scene represented on the 
Assyrian marbles which graphically 
illustrates this text, and at the same 
time shows the antiquity of the custom 
referred to. A captive is brought before 
the king, and in front of him is one who 
seizes the prisoner with the left hand, 
while the right hand is extended with 
open palm as if to smite him. He is also 
represented as spitting in the captive's 
face. Around his neck is suspended the 
head of a slain countryman. 

This indignity of spitting and smiting 
was repeated in the case of Jesus by the 
Roman soldiers. The first insult of the 
kind was when he was in the presence 
of the high priest. Afterward, when 
Pilate released Barabbas and delivered 
Jesus up to the brutal soldiery, they 
again spit upon him and smote him. See 
Matt, xxvii. 30 ; Mark xv, 19 ; John xix, 3. 



720.— PETER IN THE PALACE. 



See also Mark xiv. 



Luke 



XXVI, 69. — Peter sat without in the palace, 
xxii, 55 ; John xviii, 16, 18. 

The meaning of this is that Peter was in the court of the palace, around 
which the house itself was built, but yet outside of the rooms. See note on 
Esther i, 5, and the engraving accompanying it. In this open court a fire was 
made, and here Peter was warming himself. Mark says that "Peter was 
beneath in the palace." The room in which the trial was held was probably 
a few steps above the court, opening into it, and separated from it by a rail- 
ing and pillars. Thus Peter was in the palace, to which John plainly tells 
us he had been admitted, and yet, at the same time, he was "without" and 
" beneath." 

721.— THE PORCH. 

XXVI, 71. When he was gone out into the porch. See also Mark 
xiv, 68. 

The porch is the passage-way from the street to the court. See diagram 
on page 198. It is sometimes arched, and its floor usually inclines from the 
direction of the street. A door opens from it into the court; but this door 
is so arranged that it is not directly opposite to the gate which opens to the 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 891 

street. Thus, though both should be open at the same time, no one, in pass- 
ing through the street, would be able to look into the court. This was the 
place to which Peter retreated when he was accused of having been with 
Jesus. The porch is also mentioned in Judges iii, 23. 

7%%.— POSITION OF THE ACCUSED. 
XXVII, 11. Jesus stood, before the governor. 

Tt was the custom' for the judge to sit while the accused person stood be- 
fore him. Thus Paul said to Agrippa : " Now I stand and am judged for the 
hope of the promise made of God unto our father?." Acts xxvi, 6. Thus 
Jesus stood before Pilate, as is stated in the text. 

The accuser also stood while giving testimony. See note on Matt, xii, 41. 

723.— THE PRISONER RELEASED. 
XXVII, 15. Now at that feast the governor was wont to re- 
lease unto the people a prisoner, whom they would.. See also 
Mark xv, 6 ; Luke xxiii, IT ; John xviii, 39. 

It is not known whether the custom here mentioned was of Jewish or of 
Gentile origin. According to Maimonides, the Jews were in the habit of 
punishing criminals at the three great feasts, because there would then be a 
greater multitude of people to witness the punishment than at other times. 
If the custom be of Gentile origin, as many suppose, it is then a question 
whether it was a Syrian or a Roman custom. Grotius supposed that the 
Romans introduced it in order to gain the good-will of the Jews. There is. 
however, no historic mention of the practice aside from what we find in 
the Gospels. 

It is thought that this privilege of demanding the release of a prisoner at 
the Feast of the Passover was expressly named in the instructions which 
Pilate had received as proprcetor, since the governor had not the right of 
himself to release a prisoner, the right of pardoning a condemned criminal 
being a prerogative of the emperor alone. 

724.— SCOURGING. 
XXVII, 2(t. When he had scourged Jesus, he delivered him. 
to be crucified. See also Mark xv, 15 ; John xix, 1. 

It was customary among the Romans to scourge a condemned criminal be- 
fore he was put to death. From Luke xxiii, 16, some have doubted whether 
the scourging of Jesus was a punishment of that character, inasmuch as 
Pilate there seems desirous to substitute scourging for crucifixion. It is 
not, however, a question of any practical moment, since the scourging was 
probably as severe as was usual in the cases of the condemned. 



392 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

Scourging among the Romans was a more severe punishment than among 
the Jews. See note on Matt, x, 17. The scourge was made of cords or 
tliongs of leather, and especially of ox-hid* 1 . There was one sort with which 
slaves were beaten, the use of which was particularly dreadful. It was 
knotted with bones, or heavy, indented circles of bronze. Sometimes the 
thongs, two or three in number, terminated in hooks. Such an instrument 
of torture was called a scorpion. There was no legal limit to the number 
of blows, as among the Jews; but the unfortunate culprit, bound to a low 
pillar, so that his bent back might more readily receive the heavy strokes, 
was beaten with merciless severity, and death was sometimes the result of 
this cruel punishment. Paul refers to Roman scourging in 2 Cor. xi, 25. 

725.— THE ROMAN COHORT. 

XXVII, 27. Then the soldiers of the governor took Jesus into 
the common hall, and. gathered unto him the whole band of 
soldiers. See also Mark xv, 16. 

This " band " (cKelpn) was the Roman cohort, which was the tenth part 
of a legion, and consisted of three maniples, each having two centuries. 
Ordinarily the cohort comprised six hundred men, but the number varied 
from three hundred to a thousand or more. Cornelius commanded a century 
in the Italian cohort. Acts x. 1. The cohort is also referred to in Acts xxi, 
31 ; xxvii, 1. • 

726.— THE ROBE. 

XXVII, 28. They stripped him, and put on him a scarlet robe. 
See also Mark xv, 17 ; John xix, 2. 

The " robe " was probably the Roman paludamentum, which closely resem- 
bled the Greek chlamys. It was an outer garment, which hung loosely over 
the shoulders, was open in front, reached down to the knees or lower, and was 
fastened across the chest with a clasp, which, by the motions of the wearer, 
sometimes shifted to either shoulder. It was commonly either white or pur- 
ple. Mark and John speak of this one as purple, and Matthew saj-s it was 
scarlet. The two terms were convertible. The paludamentum was a mili- 
tary cloak, and, in mockery of the royalty of Jesus, w r as put upon him after 
he had been " stripped " of the outer garment which he usually wore. Com- 
pare verse 31, and see note on Deut. xxiv, 12, 13. 

727.— EXECUTIONS OUTSIDE THE WALLS. 
XXVII, 31. After that they had mocked him, they took the robe 
off from him, and put his own raiment on him, and led him 
away to crucify him. See also Mark xv, 20 ; Luke xxiii, 26 ; John xix, 16. 

Mark says that they led him out. So in the Epistle to the Hebrews it is 
said that Jesus ''suffered without the gate." Heb. xiii, 12. Capital punish- 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 393 

ments among the Jews were executed outside the boundaries of camps or 
the walls of cities. See Lev. xxiv, 14; Num. xv, 35, 36; 1 Kings xxi, 13 ; 
Acts vii, 58. The Romans also observed the same custom, particularly in 
ihe crucifixion of malefactors. 

72§.— PLACE OF CAPITAL PUNISHMENT. 
XXYII, 33. When they were come unto a place called Gol- 
gotha, that is to say, a place of a skull. See also Mark xv, 22 ; Luke 
xxiii, 33 ; John xix, IT. 

This is supposed to have been the spot where capital executions for Jeru- 
salem usually took place. It was customary to have certain places set 
apart for such purposes by the different cities. Rosenmuller (Morgenland, 
vol. v, p. 117) gives several illustrations of this. . The Mamertius had such a 
one on the Pompeian Way, behind their city. The Romans also had a par- 
ticular pi ice for the crucifixion of slaves. Descriptive names were given to 
these places. The Romans called their place of execution Sestei'tium, be- 
cause it was two and a half miles from the city. The Thessalians called 
theirs Korax, the Raven ; which is similar to the German Babenstein, (raven- 
stone,) a name given to a place of execution, because the ravens resort 
there when a criminal is executed and .exposed. " To the ravens! " was a 
very significant ancient curse. The name of the place wher^ Jesus was ex- 
ecuted was Golgotha, a corrupt form of the Chaldee name for a skull. This 
would be a significant title for a place of execution, and many suppose that 
this ;s the reason of the name. Others, however, think the name may have 
bi en given to the place because of its rounding, skull-like form ; and some 
authorities assert that the Romans had no particular places for crucifixion 
n ar Jerusalem, but executed this mode of punishment anywhere outside 
the wal s. Even if this were so, there may have been reasons why one 
place should be more frequently used than others, and this might properly 
be known as the "place of a skull." 

T29.— STUPEFYING POTION. 
XXVII, 34. They gave him vinegar to drink mingled with 
gall. See also Mark xv, 23 ; Luke xxiii, 36. 

It was customary among the Romans to give to the person to be crucified 
a stupefying potion of wine and myrrh. This, according to Mark, is what 
was offered to Jesu^, while M-tthew states that they offered vinegar and 
gall. Some think the wine, being sour, is represented by the word " vinegar," 
and the myrrh, being bitter, by the word " gall." Lightfoot suggests that 
Mark gives the ordinary name by which the usual stupefying potion was 
known, while Matthew tells literally what was offered instead by the sol- 
diers, in mockery, as Luke savs. See Luke xxiii. 36. It mnv bo. after oil. 



394 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

that two distinct draughts were offered, the one by way of mocking his 
agony, and the other according to the usual custom. 

•730.— CRUCIFIXION. 

XXVII, 35. They crucified him, and parted his garments, east- 
ing lots. See also Mark xv, 25 ; Luke xxiii, 33 ; John xix, 18. 

Crucifixion was not a Jewish punishment, though among the Jews cul- 
prits were sometimes tied to a stake by their hands after death. See Deut. 
xxi, 22. It was an ancient mode of capital punishment, and is said to have 
been devised by Semiramis. It was in use by the Persians, Assyrans, 
Egyptians, Carthaginians, Scythians. Greeks, Romans, and ancient Ger- 
mans. It was a most shameful and degrading punishment, and among the 
Romans was the fate of robbers, assassins, and rebels. It was especially the 
punishment of criminal slaves. 

There were several kinds of crosses used. One consisted of two beams 
of wood laid across each other in the form of an X- Another had two 
beams of unequal length, the shorter placed on top of the 
longer, like the letter X- ^ n a ^ nr( i variety, a small portion of 
the longer piece appeared above the transverse beam, thus : 
and on this the inscription was placed. See note on Matt, xxvii, 
37. This was doubtless the form of cross on which our Lord 
was crucified. From the center of the perpendicular beam there projected a 
wooden plug or horn, on which the body of the condemned rested. The 
bottom of the cross was sharpened, that it might be more easily driven 
into the ground. The ordinary representations of the cross hi paintings 
and engravings are incorrect, inasmuch as they make it appear larger and 
heavier than the reality. It was not generally more than ten feet high, so 
that when erected, a part of it being in the earth, the feet of the sufferer- 
were not far from the ground. 

The condemned man was first stripped of his clothing, which seems to 
have been the perquisite of the executioners. See John xix, 23, 24. He 
was then fastened to the cross, which had been previously fixed in the 
earth — though sometimes he was first fixed to the cross— which was then 
lifted and thrus't into the ground. He sat on the middle bar or horn, 
already mentioned, and his limbs were stretched out and tied to the bars of 
the cross. Large iron spikes were then driven through the bauds and feet. 
Sometimes the feet were nailed separately, and at other times they were 
crossed and a long spike was driven through them both. 

In this situation the poor sufferer was left to linger until death slowly came 
to his relief. This usually required two or three days, though some lin- 
gered a longer time before their sufferings ended. The pain was very severe, 



t 



Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 395 

though not so intense as has sometimes been represented. On this subject 
Dv Stroud says: "The bodily sufferings attending this puni-hment were 
doubtless great; but, either through ignorance or design, have been much 
exaggerated. The insertion of the cross into its hole or socket, when the 
criminal was previously attached to it, did not necessarily produce the 
violent concussion which has been supposed ; and, as the body rested on a 
bar, it did not bear with its whole weight on the perforated extremities. 
At all events there have been many examples of persons enduring these 
sufferings with the utmost fortitude, and almost without a complaint, until 
relieved from them by death. A fact of importance to be known, but which 
has not been sufficiently regarded, is that crucifixion was a very lingering 
punishment, and proved fatal, not so much by loss of blood — since the 
wounds in the hands and feet did not lacerate any large vessel, and were 
nearly closed by the nails which produced them — as by the slow process of 
nervous irritation and exhaustion." — The Physical Cause of the Death of 
Christ, p. 55. 

After death the body was left to be devoured by beasts and birds of prey. 
The Romans, however, made an exception in favor of all Jews who were 
crucified ; this was on account of their law, as contained in Dent, xxi, 22, 23. 
They were permitted to bury the crucified Jews on the day of crucifixion. 
This usually made it necessary to hasten their death, which was done by 
kindling a fire under them, or by letting hungry beasts attack them, or by 
breaking their bones with an iron mallet: 

731.— THE GUARD. 

XXVII, 36. Sitting down they watched him there. 

This refers to the military guard, who were the actual executioners, and 
whose duty it was to watch the person crucified lest his friends should 
rescue him. In this instance the guard probably consisted of five men, four 
of them ordinary soldiers, (a "quaternion; " see note on Acts xii, 4,) and the 
fifth the centurion in command. Compare Matt, xxvii, 54, with John 
xix, 23. 

732.— THE TABLET ON THE CROSS. 
XXVII, 37. Set up over his head his accusation written, THIS 
IS JESUS THE KING OF THE JEWS. See also Mark xv, 26; Luko 
xxiii, 35 ; John xix, 19. 

It was a Roman custom in cases of capital execution to put on a tablet 
the crime for which the condemned suffered, this tablet being placed in 
full view of all who witnessed the execution. Eusebius states that the 
martyr Attalus was led around the amphitheater, while before him there 
was borne a tablet, on which were the words, " This is Attalus the Chris- 



396 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Matthew. 

tian.'" The tablet was sometimes carried by the condemned man himself, 
hung around his neck, on the way to execution. In the official language of 
the Romans it was called Titulus. It was a metal plate, having black letters 
on a white ground. We know not whether Jesus carried this tablet around 
his neck, or whether it was borne before him ; but when the cross was 
reared it was placed over his head in view of all beholders. 

733.— THE VAIL OF THE TEMPLE. 
XXYII, 51. Behold., the vail of the temple was rent in twain 
from the top to the bottom. See also Mark xv, 38 ; Luke xxiii, 45. 

This vail was the curtain which hung between the Holy Place and the 
Most Holy Place. It was sixty feet in length, and reached from floor to 
ceiling. The rabbins say that there were two vails in this part of the tem- 
ple; that while in the first temple there was a wall one cubil thick, in the 
second temple they placed two vails between the Holy Place and the Most 
Holy Place, leaving a vacnnt space of a cubit in width between them. If 
this were so, they were probably both torn at the time referred to in the 
text and parallels, since the design of the evangelists evidently is to show 
that the separation between the two parts of the temple no longer 
existed. 

734.— THE "DOOR" OF THE SEPULCHER. 

XXVII, 60. And laid it in his own new tomb, which he had 
hewn out in the rock : and he rolled a great stone to the door 
of the sepuleher, and departed. See also Mark xv, 46 : Luke xxiii, 53; John 
xix, 41, 42. 

1. For a description of rock-tombs, see note on Isa. xxii, 16. 

2. Dr. Barclay, in his account of the ''Tombs of the Kings," represents 
the outer door as consisting of a large stone disc 
like a millstone, and suggests that this may have 
been the case with Joseph's tomb, into which the 
Saviour was put, though he admits that there are 
other methods by which " a great stone " might 
be "rolled to $he door of the sepuleher." He 
says: "Immediately in front of the doorway (the 
top of which is more than a foot below the floor 
of the porch) is a deep trench, commencing a foot 
or two west of the door, and extending three or 152.— Dook op the Tomb. 
four yards along the wall eastward. The bottom of this trench is a short 
distance below the sill of the door, and is probably an inclined plane. Along 
this channel a large thick stone disc traverses, fitting very accurately against 
its wes'ern end. which is made concave, so as to be exactlv conformed to the 




Matthew.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 897 

convexity of this large millstone-like disc when rolled to that end — thus 
closing the door- way most effectually." — City of the Great King, p. 192. 

Porter has a statement similar to that of Barclay, though he does not 
give the shape of the slab which is rolled into the groove. See Giant Cities 
of Bashan, etc., p. 139. Of course no one can say that this was the 
precise arrangement in Joseph's sepulcher, though we see no improbability 
in it. 

The rolling of the stone is also mentioned in Matt, xxviii, 2 ; Mark 
xvi, 3, 4; Luke xxiv, 2. The stone at the sepulcher is likewise named in 
Jolm xi, 38, 39. 

T35— SEALING THE SEPULCHER. 
XXVII, 66. So they went, and. made the sepulcher sure, seal- 
ing the stone, and setting a watch. 

Tt is thought by some that this refers to the custom of fastening the stone 
at the entrance of the tomb with cement, a custom which has been noticed 
by modern travelers. The context, however, shows that this was an official 
sealing, which was intended to be so arranged that the seal could not be 
broken without detection. Thus the lion's den was sealed into which Dan- 
iel was put. See Dan. vi, 17. A cord stretched across the stone, with a 
lump of stamped clay fastening it at each end, would prevent any entrance 
without detection. Clay was often impressed with the stamp of seals for 
various purposes. See note on Job xxxviii, 14. 



MARK. 



736.— THE ROOF BROKEN UP. 
II, 4. 'When they could not come nigh unto him for the press, 
they uncovered the roof where he was : and when they had 
broken it up, they let down the bed wherein the sick of the 
palsy lay. See also Luke v, 19. 

Prom the second verse it appears that the crowd of people was so great as 
to fill, not only the court, but the porch. (For description of the court, see 
note on Matt, xxvi, 69; and of the porch, see note on Matt, xxvi, 71.) The 
precise position of the Saviour is not stated. He may have been in the 
general reception-room, which opened into the court at the side opposite to 
the porch, with the people behind him in the room, and before him in the 
court. ; or, if the house were two stories high, he may have been on the gallery 
which surrounded the court, the people thronging the gallery as well as the 
court below. See note on Esther i, 5. Nor are we told how the four bearers 



398 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Mark. 

of the sick man contrived to get him to the roof. Some suppose that they 
carried him np by the stairs which led from the court ; but, if the house was 
so crowded as to leave no room even at the door, it is hard to tell how they 
could get him through the porch into the court, and thence to the stairs. If 
tlie house was joined to others in the same street, they might have taken him 
through the adjoining building, and lifted him over the parapet which divided 
the roofs of the two houses, and thus have placed him on the roof of the 
house where. Jesus was teaching; or there may have been a flight of external 
stairs by which they could ascend from the street to the roof. See note on 
Matt, xxiv, 17. 

Several explanations have been given of the manner in which they found 
access to Jesus after they reached the roof. Mark says that they "un- 
covered" the roof, and "broke it up." Luke says, "they let him down 
through the tiling." Tile-roofs, however, are not common in Syria, though 
Greek houses are usually covered in this manner. This fact has led to the 
suggestion that Luke, being probably a native of Greek Antioch, may have 
used the word " tiling," not in reference to the material of which the roof 
was made, but because it was to him the most familiar term which signified 
roofing. See Phillott in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. Tile. Both 
evangelists undoubtedly mean the covering which was over that part of the 
house where Jesus was. The following are the principal explanations which 
have been given of the manner in which the roof was uncovered: 

1 . That the sick man was let down through the scuttle, or ordinary open- 
ing in the roof; this opening being first made large enough for the pur- 
pose by breaking the roof around its edge. This is Dr. Lightfoot's explana- 
tion. See Horoz Hehraicce on this text. 

2. That the court, where Jesus and the people were assembled, was 
covered by an awning. See note on Esther i, 6. The friends of the sick 
man, on reaching the roof, loosened this awning, and then let the paralytic 
down into the court. This is the opinion of Dr. Shaw. See Travel?, etc., p. 211. 

3. That the ordinary roof of the house was actually broken up, the sticks, 
thorn-bush, mortar, and earth, of which it was composed, being thrown aside, 
until an aperture was made large enough to let the sick man through. (For 
structure of roofs, see note on Psa. cxxix, 6.) This view, which is adopted 
by many commentators, is advocated by Dr. Thomson. He states that the 
roof could easily be broken in this manner, and easily repaired ; that, as a 
matter of fact, it is often done for the purpose of letting down grain, straw, 
and other articles. He says: "I have often seen it done, and done it myself 
to houses in Lebanon, but there is always more dust made than is agreeable." 
— The Land and the Book, vol. ii, p. 7. The doctor, however, supposes that 
in the case referred to in the text the roof may have been made of materials 
more easily taken up, such as coarse matting, boards, or coarse slabs. 



Mark.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 899 

4. That the Saviour was in the gallery while he addressed the people 
around him and in the court below, and that it was the roof of this gallery 
which the friends of the sick man broke up. This is the opinion of Dr. Kitto. 
He says: "They had only to take up two or three of the loosely- attached 
boards forming the covering of the gallery, and there was a clear and suf- 
cient opening through which to let their friend down to the feet of our 
Saviour." — Daily Bible Illustrations, vol. vii, p. 260. 

This last theory seems to us to present greater probabilities of correctness 
than any of the others, though every one of them shows how the incident 
recorded in the text was possible. 

737.— BOAT- CUSHION. 

IV, 38. He was in the hinder part of the ship, asleep on a pillow. 

This "pillow" (TrpooKEfyal.aiov) is supposed by critics to have been different 
from the soft pillow used for a head-rest in houses. See note on Ezek. xiii, 18. 
Such an article would hardly be in place in a fisherman's boat. It was rather 
the cushion or fleece on which the rowers sat when they pulled the oars. 
"This use of tzpogke§u7miov for 'cushion to sit upon,' though rare, is found 
occasionally in even the purest classical writers." — Bloomfield. 

738.— TOMBS FOR DWELLINGS. 

V, 2, 3. When he was come out of the ship, immediately there 
met him out of the tombs a man with an unclean spirit, who 
had his dwelling among the tombs. See also Luke viii, 27. 

Tombs hewn out of the rock were sometimes made hiding-places for 
criminals, dwellings for poor people, and abodes for the insane. By reading 
the description of these tombs contained in the note on Isa. xxii, 16, it can be 
seen that they might readily he converted into places of shelter by persons 
whose tastes were not fastidious, or whose necessities compelled them to 
seek a refuge. Isaiah describes the idolatrous Hebrews of his time as a 
people who "remain among the graves, and lodge among the monuments." 
Isa. lxv, 4. This is supposed to have been done from the superstitious 
notion, which 1 hey had learned from the heathen, that the dreams which they 
would have in such desol te places would be a revelation of future events. 

At the present day travelers in Palestine sometimes find a temporary 
asylum for the night in the old tombs, which are no longer used for burial 
purposes. Buckingham, who visited a number of tombs in the very region 
where the incident referred to in the text took place, found a carpenter's 
shop in an old sepulcher. He went into another which was used as a dwell- 
ing. " The tomb was about eight feet in height on the inside, as there was a 
descent of a steep step from the stone threshold to the floor. Its size was about 
twelve paces square; but, as no light was received into it except by the door, 



400 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [MarX 

we could not see whether there was an inner chamber as in some of the others. 
A perfect sarcophagus still remained within, and this was now used by the 
family as a chest for corn and other provisions, so that this violated sepulcher 
of the dead had thus become a secure, a cool, and a convenient retreat to the 
living of a different race." — Travels in Palestine, p. 440. 

739.— DILIGENT HAND -WASHING. 
VII, 3. For the Pharisees, and. all the Jews, except they wash 
their hands oft, eat not, holding the tradition of the elders. 

There is great diversity of opinion among critics as to the proper rendering 
of Kvyfif}, "oft." Its primary signification is the fist, and hence Robinson 
renders the text, " unless they wash their hands (rubbing them) with the fist, 
i. e., not merely dipping the fingers or hand in water as a sign of ablution, 
but rubbing the hands together as a ball or fist in the usual Oriental manner 
when water is poured over them." — Lexicon of the New Testament. From 
this he supposes the word to be taken in the sense of "sedulously, carefully, 
diligently.'' 

How ' : diligently " the "traditions of the elders" required the Pharisees 
to wash is illustrated by Lightfoot in extracts from Rabbinical writers. 
See llorm Hebraicoz on Matt, xv, 2. He states that they make mention "of 
the quantity of water sufficient for this washing — of the washing of the 
hands, and of the plunging of them ; of the first and second water ; of the 
manner of washing; of the time; of the order, when the number of those 
that sat down to meat exceeded five, or did not exceed; and other such like 
niceties." Not content with the ordinary usage of washing after eating, (see 
note on 2 Kings iii, 11,) they carefully washed before eating, lest they should 
be injured by Shibta, "an evil spirit, which sits upon men's hands in the 
night ; and if any touch his food with unwashen hands that spirit sits upon 
that food, and there is danger from it." 

74©.— CORBAN. 
VII, 11. Ye say, If a man shall say to his father or mother, It 
is Corban, that is to say, a gift, by whatsoever thou mightest 
be profited by me ; he shall be free. See also Matt, xv, 5. 

The corban was an offering of any kind consecrated to God. It was right 
to make such offerings because God had commanded them; but the Saviour 
charges the Pharisees with placing their traditions above the Divine com- 
mands. For instance, God ordained honor and obedience to parents ; but 
the Pharisees, by their traditionary explanation and abuse of the law of 
corban, completely nullified the law of parental honor. Their traditions 
taught that whatever was corban, that is, a gift consecrated to God, could 
not be alienated for any other purpose; but in the application of this princi- 
ple, which in itself is correct enough, they manifested a wonderful ingenuity 



Mark] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 401 

of perversion. If, for instance, parents desired help, and the son should say 
u My property is corban" it released him from all obligation to sustain his 
pareuts ; nevertheless, strange to say, it did not bind him to consecrate his 
substance to sacred uses. He could use it for his own purposes, or give it 
to whom he pleased, except to those to whom ho had said, " It is corban." 
No wonder the Saviour charged the Pharisees with "making the word of 
God of none effect " through their tradition. 

T41.— STANDING DURING PRAYER. 

XI, 25. When ye stand praying, forgive, if ye have aught 
against any. 

Standing', as well as kneeling, was, among the Jews, an ancient posture 
during prayer. There are several other Scripture references to it besides the 
text. See 1 Sam. i, 26; 1 Kings viii, 22; 2 Chron. vi, 13 ; Lukexviii, 11, 13. 
While in this attitude the hands were sometimes stretched out heavenward. 
See note on 1 Kings viii, 22. The ancient Persians and Egyptians also 
stood in pra}'-er; the latter sometimes also kneeled. Some of the varied pos- 
tures of the Mohammedans in praj^er are standing. 

742.-MITE— FARTHING. 

XII, 42. She threw in two mites, which make a farthing. See 
also Luke xxi, 2. 

1. The Xen-rdv, or "mite," was the smallest Greek copper coin. Its value 
was the eighth part of an assarion ; thus making it worth about one fifth of 
one cent, or three eighths of one farthing. See note on Matt, x, 29. It is 
also mentioned in Luke xii, 59. 

2. The Kodpdvrr)?, or "farthing," was the smallest Roman brass coin, and 
was worth the fourth part of an assarion, and equal to two lepta, or mites ; 
that is, about two fifths of one cent, or three fourths of one farthing. It is 
also mentioned in Matt, v, 26. 

743.-NIGHT-WATCHES. 

XIII, 35. Wateh ye therefore: for ye know not when the 
master of the house eometh, at even, or at midnight, or at the 
eoekerowing, or in the morning. 

The earliest division of the night into watches is noticed in the note on 
Exod. xiv, 24. After the Jews became subject to the Roman power they 
adopted the Roman method of dividing the watches. These watches were 
four : the first being from sunset to three hours later; the second from this 
time to midnight ; the third from midnight to three hours before sunrise ; 
and the fourth from this time to sunrise. These four watches are all alluded 

25- 



402 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Mark. 

to iu the text, the first being called "even," the second "midnight," the 
third "cockcrowing," and the fourth "morning;" the names indicating 
the time when the watch terminated. 

This mode of dividing the night is also referred to in Matt, xiv, 25; 
xxiv, 43 ; Mark vi, 48 ; Luke xii, 38. 

744.— AN EXCEPTIONAL CUSTOM— PITCHER. 
XIV, 18. There shall meet you a man bearing a pitcher of 

water. See also Luke xxii, 10. 

1. Water is usually carried by women. See note on Gen. xxiv, 15. 
Therefore the sight of a man carrying water would more readily attract 
attention. Hackett says: "I recollect but two instances in which I saw 'a 
man bearing a pitcher of water ; ' and I think that the manner in which the 
Saviour refers to such a circumstance (he mentions it as a sign) implies that 
it was not common." — Illustrations of Scripture, p. 89. 

2. The " pitcher " is supposed to have been an amphora. See note on 
2 Kings iv, 2. 

745.— THE "UPPER ROOM." 
XIV, 14, 15. "Where is the guest-chamber, where I shall eat the 
passover with my disciples? And he will show you a large 
upper room furnished and prepared : there make ready for 
us. See also Luke xxii, 11, 12. 

Some suppose this "guest chamber " aud " upper room " to be the allyah, 
or room above the porch or on the roof. See note on 2 Kings iv, 10. 
Others, however, think the words refer to a large open room fronting the 
court, on the side opposite to the entrance from the porch, and elevated 
above the level of the court. See note on Matt, xxvi, 69. This is a very 
important apartment in an Eastern house, and is often elegantly fitted up. 
Here the owner receives his friends, or those who come to him on business. 
It is the first room that meets the eye of a visitor on entering the court, and 
frequently presents a splendid appearance. Sometimes a fountain in the 
court directly in front of this apartment cools the air, while adding beauty 
to the appearance. 

746— MODE OF EATING. 
XIV, 20. One of the twelve, that dippeth with me in the dish. 

See also Matt, xxvi, 23. 

The Orientals at their meals make no use of knives, forks, or spoons. 
The animal food is so thoroughly cooked as to be easily separated by the 
fingers, and with the fingers the food of all kinds is mainly taken from the 
dish. When, however, the food is in a semi-fluid state, or so soft that the 



Mark.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 403 

fingers cannot conveniently hold it, a piece of bread is dipped into the dish 
and made the vehicle by which soft food is conveyed to the mouth. This 
bread formed the " sop " mentioned in John xiii, 26, where see the note. 

747.— COUNSELOR. 
XV, 43. Joseph, of Arimathea, an honorable counselor. S«e also 
Luke xxiii, 50. 

The expression " counselor " means that Joseph was a member of the 
Jewish Sanhedrim or Great Council. Luke makes this clear by adding, " The 
same had not consented to the counsel and deed of them." Luke xxiii, 51. 
" Them " undoubtedly refers to the Jewish authorities who had condemned 
Jesus. It is supposed by some that the expression " honorable " was a title 
of distinction applied to every "counselor " or member of the Sanhedrim. 
For a description of this Council, see note on Matt, xxvi, 59. 



LUKE. 



74§.— WIVES OF PRIESTS. 
1, 5. There was ... a certain priest named. Zaeharias, of the 
course of Abia : and. his wife was of the daughters of Aaron. 

Great care was taken in the selection of wives for the Jewish priests, so 
that the line of priests might be kept in every respect unsullied. "It was 
lawful for a priest to marry a Levitess, or, indeed, a daughter of Israel; 
but it was most commendable of all to marry one of the priests' line." — Light- 
foot, Horce Hebraicce. Zaeharias was specially honored in having for his 
wife one of the descendants of Aaron. 

749.— NAMING THE CHILD. 
I, 59. It came to pass, that on the eighth day they came to cir- 
cumcise the child ; and they called him Zaeharias, after the 
name of his father. 

It was customary among the Jews to give names to children at the time 
of their circumcision. The rabbins say that this was because God changed 
the names of Abram and Sarai at the same time that he instituted circum- 
cision. It was very rarely that the son received the name of the father; 
there was, doubtless, some special reason in this case why the friends wished 
the babe to be called Zaeharias. The custom of naming the child at the time 
of circumcision is also illustrated in the case of Jesus. See Luke ii, 21. 

Other nations, as w r ell as the Jews, gave names to their children on special 
days. Godwyn says: "The Romans gave names to their male children on 



40-i BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. 

the ninth, day, to the female on the eighth. The Athenians gave names on 
the tenth. Others on the seventh. These days Tertullian calleth Nominalia. 
The Grecians, besides the tenth day on which they named the child, 
observed also the fifth, on which day the midwives took the child, and ran 
about a fire made for that purpose, using that ceremony as a purification of 
themselves and the child." — Moses and Aaron, book vi, chap. i. 

Morier gives an interesting account connected with the naming of children 
in Persia. He says: "The Persians have no ceremony that corresponds 
entirely to our christening, because their children become Mohammedans as 
soon as the Kelemeh Islam has been whispered into their ear; but they have 
one called the Sheb be Khair, or 'Be the night propitious,' which is for the 
purpose of giving the child a name. If the father of the child be in good 
circumstances, he collects his friends together and makes a feast. He also 
requires the attendance of several Mollahs; and when the mejlisov assembly 
is complete, sweetmeats are brought in and eaten. The infant is also brought 
into the mejlis, and placed near one of the Mollahs. The father of the child 
then gives out certain names, five in number, each of which is written 
separately on separate slips of paper. These slips of paper are placed either 
within the Koran, or under the edge of the nummud, or carpet. The Fatheh. 
which is the first surai or chapter of the Koran, is read. One of the slips of 
paper is then taken out at random by the hand of the father, and the child 
is called after the name which is there inscribed. A Mullah takes up the 
babe, pronounces the name in its ear, and places the paper on its swaddling- 
clothes. The relations of the child then each give it money and other pres- 
ents, and this custom they call the Roo-memah, or Shovjivg the face." — Second 
Journey, etc., p. 108. 

750.— WRITING-TABLETS. 

I, 63. He asked, for a writing-table, and wrote, saying, His 
name is John. 

"Writing-tablets were in use among various ancient nations. They are 
referred to in Isa. xxx, 8, and in Hab. ii, 2, and metaphorically in Prov. hi, 3 ; 
Jer. xvii, 1, and 2 Cor. hi, 3. They are yet to be seen in modern Greece. 
Among the Romans they were occasionally made of ivory or of citron- wood, 
but generally of beach, fir, or some other common wood. They were 
covered with a thin coating of wax in which the letters were formed by a 
stylus, an instrument corresponding to the modern pen. It was made of 
gold, silver, brass, iron, copper, ivory, or bone. One end was pointed for 
writing, while the other was smooth, flat, and circular, for erasing, and for 
smoothing the waxed surface so that it might be used again for writing. The 
outside part of the tablet, which was held in the hand, was not coated with 
wax, and around the edce of the inside there was a thin, narrow ledge, so 



Luke.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



405 



that when two tablets came together the waxed surfaces would not touch 
each other and become marred. 

A book was often made of several 
of these tablets combined, some- 
times as many as five or six being 
fastened together at the backs by 
means of wires, which also served 
as hinges. Tablets were used for 
almost every species of writing, 
where the document was not of 
great length. Letters, or even wills, 

were written upon them. For the "^ 

purpose of sealing these, and other ^- 

documents which might require it, 153.— Writing Tablets. 

holes were made in the outer edge, through which a triple thread was passed 
and fastened with a seal. 




751.— SWADDLING-CLOTHES— MANGER— INN. 

II, 7. She brought forth her first-born son, and. wrapped him 
in swaddling-elothes, and laid him in a manger ; because 
there was no room for them in the inn. 

1. The " swaddling-clothes " were bandages which were tightly wrapped 
around a new-born child. The rank of the child was indicated by the splendor 
and costliness of these bauds. A fine white shawl, tied with a golden band, 
was sometimes used for the purpose; at other times a small purple scarf, 
fastened with a brooch. The poor used broad fillets of common cloth. 

The practice is still followed in the East. Miss Rogers, an English lady, 
who had opportunities far beyond ordinary travelers for observing the 
domestic life of the Eastern people, describes the appearance of an infant thus 
bandaged : " The infant I held in my arms was so bound in swaddling-clothes 
that it was perfectly firm and solid, and looked like a mummy. It had a 
band under its chin and across its forehead and a little, quilted silken cap on 
its head with tiny coins of gold sewed to it. The outer covering of this little 
figure was of crimson and whhe striped silk; no sign of arms or legs, 
hands or feet, could be seen." — Domestic Life in Palestine, p. 28. This was in 
Jaffa. Another infant which she saw in Bethlehem is thus described: "I 
took the little creature in my arms. His body was stiff and unyielding, so 
tightly was it swathed with white and purple linen. H*s hands and feet were 
quite confined, and his head was bound with a small, soft red shawl, which 
passed under his chin and across his forehead in small folds.'' — P. G2. This 
custom is referred to in Job xxxviii, 9 ; Lara, ii, 22 ; Ezek. xvi, 4 ; Luke ii, 12. 

2. There is a dispute as to the precise meaning of the word tyurvrj, here 



406 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. 

and in verses 12 and 16 rendered "manger," and in Luke xiii, 15. rendered 
"stall." Some authorities give it the one meaning, and some the other; 
while others, as our translators, attach both meanings to the word. It is 
the Septuagint rendering for the Hebrew ebus in Job xxxix, 9, and in Isa. i, 3 ; 
a word which, in our version, is translated " crib." The location of the 
manger or the stall is also a point of discussion ; whether it was connected 
with the stable belonging to the inn, or with some other stable in the neigh- 
borhood, as, for instance, in some cave near by. Caves, we know, were used 
for dwellings, (see note on Gen. xix, 30,) and are so used at this day, and also 
for stables. The discussion is interesting, but is not pertinent to the object of 
this book. It is proper, however, to remark, that in many rude houses horses 
and cattle are stabled in the court, while the family are provided for in apart- 
ments raised on a platform of stone some two feet from the level of the court. 
The food of the animals is placed on this platform, and sometimes there are 
hollow places in the stone which serve the purpose of mangers. See further 
in the description of the inn in the next paragraph. 

3. The Eastern "inn," or caravanserai, bears no resemblance to the inns 
with which we are acquainted. There are various kinds of these Oriental 
inns, some being merely small, rude resting-places, such as are mentioned 
in the note on Jer. ix, 2, while others are capacious and comparatively com- 
fortable. Such an inn presents, at a distance, the appearance of a fortress, 
being a quadrangular building about a hundred yards long on each side of 
the square, having its wall about twenty feet high. An arched gate- way, sur- 
mounted by a tower, opens into a large open court, surrounded by a plat- 
form, on the level of which are the travelers' rooms. These rooms are not 
furnished, each traveler being expected to provide for himself every thing 
but actual shelter. He must carry his own bedding, provisions, and cooking 
utensils. In case of sickness the porter in attendance may minister to his 
wants. See Luke x, 34, 35. The horses, camels, and baggage are placed in 
the extensive court, in the center of which is a fountain. Sometimes, how- 
ever, there are stables formed of covered avenues, extending between the 
rear wall of the lodging-rooms and the external wall of the caravanserai, the 
entrance being at the corners of the quadrangle. These stables are on a 
level with the court, and thus below the level of the platform on which are the 

travelers' apartments. This plat- 
form, however, projects into the 
stable, thus forming a ledge or 
bench above the stable floor. On 

this ledge the cattle can, if they 
156.— Diagram: of Caravaxsebai. , , „ ,. 

wish, rest the nose-bags of hair- 
cloth which contain their food. Dr. Kitto thinks that it was in such a stable 
as this that our Lord was born. See Daily Bible Headings, vol. vii, p. 63. 




Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 409 



752.— " THE CONSOLATION." 
II, 25. The same man was just and. devout, waiting for the 
consolation of Israel. 

The Consolation was a term used by the Jews of that period, and long 
after, to designate the Messiah. Lightfoot says that they were accustomed 
to swear by " the Consolation." When we are told in the text that Simeon 
was waiting for "the Consolation of Israel," we are to understand that he 
was waiting for the Messiah. 

753.— THE FIRST DAY'S JOURNEY. 
II, 44, 45. But they, supposing him to have been in the company, 
went a day's journey ; and they sought him among their 
kinsfolk and acquaintance. And when they found him not, 
they turned back again to Jerusalem, seeking him. 

This does not mean that they traveled an entire day before they missed 
the lad. An ordinary " day's journey " varied from eighteen to thirty 
miles. See note on 1 Kings xix, 4. But when a party started on a journey 
the first day's travel was invariably shorter than the usual distance. This 
is a very ancient custom, and is still practiced. When every thing is ready 
for the caravan to move they slowly march on, but halt for the first night 
at a distance of from three to eight miles from the place of starting. The 
reason assigned for this usage is, that if any thing has been left behind 
through mistake or forgetfulness, some one may with but little trouble return 
and get it in time to join the caravan the next day. 

In the case before us they made the short journey of the first day, and 
then halted for the night ; so that, instead of traveling all day without miss- 
ing Jesus, they only traveled a few hours. The first stopping-place of nearly 
all traveling parties who now leave Jerusalem for the north is el-Bireh, 
supposed to be the ancient Beer, or Beeroth. It is only eight or ten miles 
from the city, and is considered a three hours' journey. There is a tradition 
that this is the very place where the caravan, of which the family of Jesus 
was a part, made their first halt ; and it certainly has greater probability in 
its favor than many other traditions connected with Palestine. Halting here, 
or not far from it, when the family gathered together they noticed the 
absence of Jesus, and immediately went back to the city to find him. 

754.— DOCTORS AND DISCIPLES. 
II, 46. They found him in the temple, sitting in the midst of 
the doctors, both hearing them, and asking them questions. 

There were several places within the Temple area where doctors of the 
law met their disciples. One of these places was in the cloisters described in 



410 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. 

the note on Matt, xxiv, 1. Another was in the synagogue which was in the 
Temple inclosure. After service the doctors admitted any who wished to 
converse with them on matters pertaining to the law. There were also 
other places resorted to for a similar purpose ; and Light foot declares that it . 
was not impossible for Jesus to have been in the great Sanhedrim itself. 

There is no reason to suppose that in the conversation which Jesus held 
with these learned men there was any thing like controversy. He simply 
followed the custom of the time, which allowed any one who chose to ques- 
tion the doctors on any points on which they desired information. 

755.— PUBLIC SCRIPTURE-READING. 
IV, 16. He went into the synagogue on the Sabbath day, and 
stood -up for to read. 

When the law and the prophets were read in the synagogue those who 
read were expected to stand. See note on Acts xiii, 15. Not only priests 
and Levites but common Israelites were allowed to read the Scriptures pub- 
licly. Every Sabbath seven persons read: a priest, a Levite, and five 
ordinary Israelites. 

756.— BOOKS OF PROPHECY. 
IV, 17. There was delivered unto him the book of the prophet 
Esaias. And when he had opened the book, he found the 
place where it was written, etc. 

1. For a description of books, and the mode of opening and closing, 
(referred to in this verse and in verse twenty,) see notes on Job xix. 23, 24 ; 
and on Isa. xxxiv, 4. 

2. Each of the prophetical books is supposed to have been in a separate 
volume, with the exception of the prophecies of the twelve minor prophets, 
which were perhaps bound together. 

757.— THE CHAZAN— POSTURE OF TEACHERS. 
IV, 20. He closed the book, and he gave it again to the minis- 
ter, and sat down. 

1. The position of the "minister" in the synagogue bore no resemblance 
to that of the minister in the Christian Church. He was called chazan, and, 
in the time of Christ and for several centuries afterward, was the lowest 
servant in the synagogue, his duties resembling those of the sexton in one 
of our churches. He had charge of the furniture, and kept the building in 
good order, preparing it for service, and summoning the people at the ap- 
pointed hour. It was also his duty to call out the names of those whom 
the ruler of the synagogue selected to read the lesson of the day, and to 
hand to them the sacred roll, receiving it from them when the reading was 



Luke-] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 411 

finished. It was the chazan who " delivered " Isaiah's prophecy to Jesus, 
as recorded in verse seventeen, and to him Jesus gave the book when he 
had done reading, as noted in the twentieth verse. 

2. Sitting was the customary posture of a teacher when instructing his 
disciples. Hence, when Jesus rolled up the manuscript and returned it to 
the hands of the chazan, he sat down on the platform instead of going back 
to his seat, because he wished to address the people. This custom is also 
referred to in Matt, v, 1 ; xxiii, 2 ; xxvi, 55 ; John viii, 2. See, further, note 
on Acts xxii, 3. 

758.— NIGHT-FISHING. 

V, 5. We have toiled all the night, and have taken nothing. 

Night- fishing is very common in the East. Roberts says that in India 
the fishermen prefer the, night to the day. They carry lighted torches to 
allure the fish. Dr. Thomson gives a lively description of night-fishing in 
Palestine : " It is a beautiful sight. "With blazing torch the boat glides over 
the flashing sea, and the men stand gazing keenly into it until their prey is 
sighted, when, quick as lightning, they fling their net or fly their spear ; and 
often you see the tired fishermen come sullenly into harbor in the morning, 
having toiled all night in vain." — The Land and the Book, vol. ii, p. 80. 

Night-fishing is also referred to in John xxi, 3. 

759.— TAX-GATHERING. 
V, 27. He went forth, and saw a publican, named Levi, sitting 
at the receipt of custom. See also Matt, ix, 9; Mark ii, 14. 

1. The publicans were the Roman tax-gatherers, of whom there were 
several classes. The Roman senate farmed the taxes to rich capitalists, who 
agreed to pay a certain sum into the public treasury, and reimburse them- 
selves with the taxes they collected. These capitalists were called publicani, 
and often formed themselves into a joint-stock company, appointing one of 
their number as general manager. He usually resided at Rome, and was 
called magister. 

The publicani were an influential section of the Roman knights, an an- 
cient order who occupied a kind of middle rank between the senators and 
the people. These, however, are not mentioned in the New Testament. 
The "publicans " so frequently referred to there were the portiiores, or men 
•who were employed by the publicani to collect the taxes in the provinces. 
They were the actual custom-house officers, and were commonly natives of 
the provinces where they were stationed. They were supervised by the 
sub-magistri, who made the returns to the magister at Rome. Zaccheus was 
a sub-magister, or "chief of the publicans." Luke xix, 2. Levi, or Matthew, 
was one of the portiiores, or tax-gatherers. 



412 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. 

The publicans, of whatever class, were looked upon with disfavor by the 
masses of the people. The complimentary reference of Cicero to the publi- 
cani, which has sometimes been cited as an evidence of their high respect- 
ability, is thought to have been merely the flattery of an orator who sought 
to accomplish political purposes thereby. The portitores, however, were 
especially detested. Their duty, if honestly discharged, would have made 
them unpopular enough ; but when, as was often the case, they went beyond 
their legal rights and levied exorbitant taxes, using all the machinery of 
the law to help them, their unpopularity greatly increased. Many of them 
were Jews, and were regarded by their Jewish brethren as no better than 
the heathen, with whom publicans were often classed. See Matt, xviii, 17. 
It is said that the Jews would not associate with them, nor allow them in 
the temple or in the synagogue ; nor would they permit them to give testi- 
mony in Jewish courts. Even the presents which they brought to the 
temple are said to have been rejected. They were completely excluded from 
their fellows. 

These statements serve to illustrate the reference made to the publicans 
in the G-ospel narratives. They were classed with sinners. See Matt. 
ix, 10, 11; xi, 19; Mark ii, 15, 16; Luke vii, 34; xv, 1. They were men- 
tioned with harlots. See Matt, xxi, 31, 32. They were alluded to as oc- 
cupying the lowest position in morals, the vilest of the vile : " even the 
publicans." Matt, v, 46. 47. 

2. Sitting at the receipt of custom accurately expresses the posture which 
is occupied in the East by all who transact business. The merchant sits 
when he sells, and even carpenters and washerwomen sit at their work. 
No one stands when at work unless it is entirely unavoidable. 

3. There were houses or booths built at the foot of bridges, at the gates 
of cities, at the mouths of rivers, and by the sea-side, where the tax-gath- 
erers transacted their business. Such a place was the teIuviov, or " receipt 
of custom." 

760.— THE "BOSOM." 
VI, 3S. Good, measure, pressed, down, and shaken together, 
and running over, shall men give into your bosom. 

The term "bosom" frequently refers, in Oriental usage, to the folds of 
the garment as they extend beyond and droop over the girdle. This part of 
the dress is also called the " lap." See 2 Kings iv, 39 : and see also note on 
Neh. v, 1 3. It is used as a receptacle for various articles, as pockets are used 
with us ; though some things are deposited there which we would not put 
into our pockets. Fathers sometimes carried their children here. See 
Num. xi, 12, and note on Isa. xlix, 22. Here also the shepherd carried the 
lambs. See 2 Sara xii, 3; Isa. xl, 11. To this custom of making a recep- 



Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 413 

tacle of the folds of the dress there are frequent allusions. See .Job 
xxxi, 33; Psa. lxxix, 12; lxxxix, 50; exxix, 7; Prov. vi, 27; xvii, 23; 
xxi, 14; Isa. lxv, 6. 

This is the custom referred to in the text ; though we are not authorized 
to infer, as some have strangely done, that grain and other articles that are 
measured in the way suggested in the text were literally carried in the 
bosom. The figure is double, and the design is to express the reflex benefits 
of good deeds ; they will come back in full measure to bless the giver. 

761 .—FOUNDATIONS. 

VI, 48. He is like a man which built a house, and digged, 
deep, and laid the foundation on a rock. See also Matt, vii, 24. 

In building the better class of houses it is usual to dig down until the 
solid rock is reached, in order to have a sure foundation for the edifice. Dr. 
Robinson says of a new house he visited in Nazareth, by invitation of its 
owner, "In order to lay the foundations he had dug down to the solid rock, 
as is usual throughout the country; here to the depth of thirty feet; and 
then built up arches." — Biblical Researches, vol. ii, p. 338. It was of such a 
house that the Saviour spoke in the text : the builder " digged deep." 

762.— SYNAGOGUE BUILDING. 
VII, 5. Fop he loveth our nation, and he hath built us a 
synagogue. 

It was no unusual thing for one man to build a synagogue at his own ex- 
pense. If, as in this case, a Gentile built the sacred edifice, the Jews had 
no scruples in receiving the gift, even if he did not become a proselyte, as 
some suppose this centurion to have been. They held that the holiness of 
the place consisted, not so much in the building, as in its being set apart and 
dedicated to holy uses. 

763.— CUSTOMS AT FUNERALS. 

VII, 12. Now when he eame nigh to the gate of the eity, be- 
hold, there was a dead man carried out, the only son of his 
mother, and she was a widow: and much people of the eity 
was with her. 

1. It was customary, and still is, to bury the dead outside the limits of the 
eity. Heathen nations as well as Jewish observed this usage. Rare ex- 
ceptions were sometimes made in the case of royal personages. See note on 
1 Kings ii, 10. Thus it was that Jesus saw the dead man carried out of 
the gate. 

2. It was usual for all who knew the deceased to accompany the body to 



414 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. 

the grave. There were several relays of men to take turns in carrying the 
bier. This was considered a privilege. Thus we are told that "much people 
of the city was with " the bereaved mother. 

764.— THE BIER. 
VII, 14. He came and. touched the bier : and they that bare 
him stood still. 

The bier is a wooden frame, partly resembling a coffin and partly a hand- 
barrow. The deceased is arrayed in grave-clothes, the ankles are bound, 
the hands are laid on the breast, and a shawl is thrown across the face. 
Miss Rogers says of a bier she saw: "It was a painted wooden stand, about 
seven feet by two, raised slightly on four legs, with a low gallery round it, 
formed of uprights far apart and two cross-bars. Two strong poles pro- 
jected at each end from the corners. Above it a canopy was raised, made 
of freshly-gathered elastic palm-branches. They were bent like half-hoops, 
and then interlaced and secured lengthways with straight fronds." — Domestic 
Life in Palestine, p. 1 62. The bier was lifted by four men who bore it aloft, 
tie poles resting on their shoulders. 

765.— KISSING THE FEET. 
VII, 38. Stood at his feet behind him . . . and kissed his feet. 

This was no unusual practice among the Jews, and was also customary 
among the Greeks and Romans. It was a mark of affection and of reverence. 
It was also the practice of supplicants, and of those who had an important 
request to present. Kissing the feet of princes was a token of subjection 
and obedience. See also verse 45. 

766.— GUIDING THE PLOW. 
IX. 62. No man, having put his hand to the plow, and looking 
back, is fit for the kingdom of God. 

The Eastern plow is of very rude and simple workmanship. See note on 
1 Kings xix, 19. It is evident from the text that in our Lord's time the 
plow usually had but one handle, and many such plows are still seen. One 
hand guides the plow, while the other holds the long goad (see note on 
Judges iii, 31) by which the oxen are spurred on to their work. The plow 
being light, it is necessary for the plowman to lean forward with all his 
weight on the handle to keep the share in the ground. Many commentators 
suggest that by looking back the laborer would be unable to make straight 
furrows. This is true; but it is also true that he could not make any furrow 
at all, and this fact must not be overlooked in considering the figure used by 
our Lord in the text. 



Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 415 



767.— FORMAL SALUTATIONS. 
X, 4. Salute no man by the way. 

This was not designed to forbid them from exercising the usual courtesies 
of life, in giving a mere salaam to those they might meet, as is evident from 
the very next verse, and also from Matt, x, 12, 13. They were, doubtless, 
?.l owed to give the usual salutation of "Peace!" See note on John xx, 19. 
But the text is designed to remind them of the importance of their mission, 
and of the necessity of diligence in its execution. Hence, they were not to 
observe the tedious and oft-repeated salutations with which the Orientals 
love to greet each other. These ceremonies of salutation are numerous find 
slowly performed. "When two friends meet each inquires of the other, again 
and again, concerning his health and the health of his family; and repeats 
over and over again the best wishes for bis prosperity and peace, thanking 
God that he is permitted once more to behold his face. These formalities are 
accompanied by numerous bowings and posturings of the bodj-, and are 
sometimes repeated as often as ten times, consuming much time and making 
great delay. Those whom our Lord sent forth were forbidden to do this. 

A similar injunction was given by Elisha when he sent his servant 
Gehazi to the Sliunamite's house: "If thou meet any man, salute him not; 
and if any salute thee, answer him not again." 2 Kings iv, 29. 

768.— FORMAL VISITING. 
X, 7. In the same house remain. . . . Go not from house to 
house. 

The exhortation to diligence in their work, alluded to in the last note, is 
repeated in a different form in this text. As salutations are tedious and fre- 
quent, so Oriental etiquette requires much visiting from house to house. 
This consumes time and takes attention from business; hence our Lord com- 
mands his disciples not to do it. 

769.— NEIGHBORS. 
X, 29. He, willing to justify himself, said unto Jesus, And. who 
is my neighbor? 

The Jews gave a very narrow definition of the word " neighbor." The 
rabbins interpreted it to meau only those who were of the Jewish people. 
The Gentiles were not considered neighbors. 

770.— USE OF OIL AND WINE. 

X, 34. Went to him, and. bound up his wounds, pouring in oil 
and wine. 

This was a favorite application for wounds in ancient surgery. It was 
considered a sovereign remedy, especially for wounds produced by violence; 



416 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. 

wool, lint, or pounded olive being first laid upon the wound. The wine was 
supposed to cleanse, and the oil to soothe and heal. The two were some- 
times made into a compound. 

771 .—NIGHT-TRAVELING. 
XI, 5, 6. "Which of you shall have a friend, and. shall go unto 
him at midnight, and say unto him, Friend, lend me three 
loaves ; for a friend of mine in his journey is come to me. 

It would, indeed, be a rare circumstance among us to have a friend come 
at midnight to borrow bread ; but in the East, where, on account of the heat, 
the traveling is often done at night, it might easily occur. To an Oriental 
audience the allusion in the parable would be perfectly natural. 

772.— FAMILY BEDROOM. 
XI, 7. Trouble me not : the door is now shut, and my children 
are with me in bed. 

It is common for a whole family, parents, children, and servants, to sleep 
in the same room, different beds being made for them on different parts of 
the divan. See note on 2 Kings i, 4, and on Matt, ix, 6. " E£f ttjv kolttjv [in 
bed] may best be rendered by our a-bed, for ai-bed. Mer* e/zov [with me] does 
not necessarily imply in the same bed ; rather, according to the simplicity of 
ancient manners, in the same room." — Bloomfield. 

773.— NEGLECTED TOMBS. 
XI, 44. Ye are as graves which appear not, and the men that 
walk over them are not aware of them. 



There is an allusion here to the custom spoken of in the note on Matt. 
xxiii. 27, though the reference in this text is to the neglect of the custom rather 
than to its observance. When the customary whitewashing of a flat tomb 
was neglected its presence was easily concealed from view, and the passer-by 
might walk upon it and thus become ceremonially defiled. 

774.— MONEY- BAGS. 
XIL, 33. Provide yourselves bags which wax not old, a treasure 
in the heavens that faileth not. 

Mone}' was kept in the royal treasuries in bags, the value of the contents 
being first ascertained and marked upon each bag, which was then sealed. 
Thenceforth, as long as the seal remained unbroken, the bag was estimated at 
its marked value, without re-counting. This was customary in ancient Egypt, 
and is still the usage in Persia and in other parts of the East. It is not con- 
fined to royal treasuries ; but private bankers pursue a similar plan, so that 
in some parts of the Levant a "purse" is the word used for a particular sura 
of money. These bags are made of cotton-cloth, and are of different sizes, 



Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 417 

as they are used for carrying gold, silver, or copper pieces. A similar custom 
seems to be referred to in 2 Kings xii, 10. 

Money-bags are alluded to in 2 Kings v, 23, and Job xiv, 17. The "bag" 
which Judas carried (John xii. 6 ; xiii, 29) was probably a small box or chest. 
A different word is used in the original, in John, from the one rendered 
"bag" in the text in Luke. It originally signified a box carried by musi- 
cians for the purpose of holding the mouth-pieces of their instruments. 

775 —TREES IN VINEYARDS. 

XIII, 6. A certain man had a fig-tree planted in his vine- 
yard. 

Vineyards were not devoted exclusively to vines. Fruit-trees of various 
kinds were planted within their limits, so that it is perfectly correct to speak 
of a fig-tree being planted in a vineyard. The ancient Egyptians planted 
their vines and fruit-trees in the same inclosure. 

776.— S ABBATH-FEAS TING. 

XIV, 1. He went into the house of one of the chief Pharisees 
to eat bread on the Sabbath day. 

The strictness with which the Jewish Sabbath was kept did not prevent 
the Pharisees, as well as other Jews, from having a better provision of food 
on that day than on ordinary days. They did this as a religious duty in 
honor of the day. Lightfoot gives several curious instances of this custom 
from the rabbins, of which this is one : " ' Rabba Bar Rabh Houna went to 
the house of Rabba Bar Rabh Nachman. He set before him three measures 
of rich cake; to whom he. How did you know of my coming ? The other 
answered, Is there any thing more valuable to us than the Sabbath ? ' 
The Gloss is : ' We do by no means prefer thee before the Sabbath ; we got 
these things ready in honor of the Sabbath, not knowing any tiling of thy 
coming.' " — Horce Hebraicce. 

777 — PLACE OF HONOR AT FEASTS. 

XIV, 7. He marked how they chose out the chief rooms. 

"Room" is old English for "place," and indeed is still sometimes used in 
that sense, as when we say, " Make room." 

The Orientals have always been punctilious in reference to positions of 
honor at formal feasts. The chief rooms or places at feasts differed among 
different nations. Among the Greeks and Romans the middle place in each 
clinium of the triclinium, or dinner-bed, was the coveted position of honor. 
See note on Matt, xxvi, 7. This was the place which the Pharisees eagerly 
desired: "They chose out the chief rooms." For this they received a 
merited rebuke from Jesus. 

See also Matt, xxiii, 6; Mark xii, 39; Luke xx, 46. 



418 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. 

T7§.— ARRANGEMENT OF GUESTS. 

XIV, 9, 10. Give this man place ; . . . Friend, go up higher. 

The host did not hesitate to regulate the position of his guests after they 
had settled it for themselves. He gave the highest in rank the chief place, 
sending the men up or down as circumstances required. Even in modern 
times there are instances of this. Schulz was at a wedding-feast at St. 
Jean d'Acre where two persons who had seated themselves at the top were 
compelled by the master of ceremonies to go down. Morier was at an en- 
tertainment in Persia where the governor of Kashan entered and took the 
lowest place. The host, on discovering him, pointed with his hand to an 
upper seat, which the governor took, the other guests making way for 
him. See Burder, Oriental Illustrations, No. 1304. 

779. -DIVISION OF PROPERTY. 

XV, 12. The younger of them said to his father, Father* give 
me the portion of goods that falleth to me. And he divided 
unto them his living. 

Neither Jewish nor Roman law permitted the father to have the arbitrary 
disposal of all his estate. The property was entailed on the sons at the 
father's death, the daughters not being allowed to inherit unless there were 
no sons. See Gen. xxxi, 14; Num. xxvii, 8. The general application to 
this law is seen in the fact that, when Job gave an inheritance to his'daugh- 
ters as well as to his sons, special mention is made of the act as though it 
were a remarkable occurrence. See Job xlii, 15. The first-born son re- 
ceived a double share. See Deut. xxi, 17. 

Some commentators, in illustrating this text, suppose that the sons had a 
right to demand a division of the property during the father's life-time, and 
that the father could not refuse such a demand. "The text, however, does 
not necessarily imply this. For all that here appears, it may have been 
merely a request urged by the son and granted by the father. There is 
nothing to show that the father was compelled to comply. He did corn pi \-, 
it is true but whether by compulsion or of his own volition is not stated. 
Mr. Burder {Oriental Customs, 1086) gives an extract from Halhed's Code of 
Gentoo Lavis, in which it is stated that under certain circumstances the sons 
had a right to demand of their father a division of his property during his life- 
time. There is no evidence, however, that either Jews or Romans had any 
such law, though they may have been acquainted with it as existing in India. 

The verisimilitude of the parable is sufficiently observed, without any ref- 
ence to a law of compulsion, by supposing it customary sometimes for fa- 
thers of their own volition to divide their estate among their sons. This is 
said to have been sometimes done among the Romans, and. that it may have 



Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 419 

been an cecasional custom among the Jews is evident from the example 
of Abraham, who "gave all that he had" to his son Isaac. See Gen. 
xxiv, 36; xxv, 5. 

7§©._ FEEDING THE SWINE. 

XV, 15. He sent him into his fields to feed, swine. 

This was considered one of the most degrading employments, not only by 
the Jews, but by other nations. Among the Egyptians, for example, the 
swineherd was completely shut off from society. The Saviour makes use 
of this antipathy to illustrate the depth of misery to which the dissipation of 
the young prodigal had brought him. 

781.— THE STEWARD. 

XVI, 1. There was a certain rich man which had a steward. 
The steward had general charge of the business of the house, and especial 

care of the heir. This is referred to in Gal. iv, 2, where the word else- 
where rendered "stewards" is translated "governors/' The office is a very 
ancient one. Abraham had a steward, Eliezer. See Gen. xv, 2, and note on 
Gen. xxiv, 2. The steward was generally an old faithful slave, though some- 
times free men were so employed. The honorable position of the steward is 
seen in the fact that he was considered to be ruler over the household. 
See Luke xii, 42. His duties are also referred to in the parable of the la- 
borers. See Matt, xx, 8. 

7§2.— DISPOSITION OF CRUMBS. 

XVI, 21. Desiring to be fed with the crumbs which fell from 
the rich man's table : moreover the dogs came and licked his 
sores. 

Some suppose that by these " crumbs " are meant the pieces of bread 
wherewith it was customary at table to wipe the fingers, an act rendered 
necessary by the practice of conveying the food to the mouth by means of 
the hand. When the fingers were thus wiped, the fragments of bread 
which had been used for the purpose were thrown to the ground, where the 
dogs were allowed to get them. This will help to illustrate the witty turn 
of the Syrophenician woman, who, when the Saviour said to her, "It is not 
meet to take the children's bread, and to cast it to dogs," quickly replied, 
" Truth, Lord: yet the dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from their masters' 
table." Matt, xv, 26, 27. See also Mark vii, 23. 

We also see by this the connection with the closing part of the text : 
" moreover the dogs came and licked his sores." With the dogs he had his 
food of the discarded fragments of the table, and the compassionate beasts 
not only permitted him to partake of their food, but also nursed him in his 
gickaess. 

.26 



420 ' BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke- 



783.— SEMI-WEEKLY FASTS. 
XYIII, 12. I fast twice in the week. 

It is said that these semi-weekly fasts were observed by the Jews because 
continuous fasting might be injurious. The days selected were the second 
and fifth. The reason assigned for the selection of these days is because it 
was supposed to be on the second day of the week that Moses went up into 
Mount Sinai to receive the two tables of the law, and it was on the fifth 
day of the week that he came down on account of the idolatry concerning 
the golden calf. These days were chosen, not only when public fasts were 
to be observed, but also when individuals fasted privately. 

The only fast commanded in the Mosaic law was in connection with the 
celebration of the Great Day of Atonement. See note on Lev. xvi, 34. 
Other fasts were observed, however, in later periods of Jewish history until, 
in our Lord's time, the Pharisees carried the practice to an extreme. They 
fasted often, (Matt, ix, 14,) and disfigured their faces. Matt, vi, 36. In the 
text the Pharisee is represented as regarding this frequent fasting as an 
evidence of his piety. 

784.— SMITING THE BREAST. 
XVIIT, 13. The publican standing afar off, would not lift up so 
much as his eyes unto heaven, but smote upon his breast. 

This is one mode of expressing great grief among the Orientals, especially 
in mourning for the dead; and its Insertion in the parable is very expressive 
of the deep sorrow of the penitent publican. His grief on account of hi* 
sins was like the grief of those who mourned for their dead. 

Morier gives an interesting account of the ceremonies observed annually 
in Persia in commemoration of the death of Hossein, the grandson of 
Mohammed, who was slain. One part of the ceremonies consists in beat- 
ing the breast as a token of grief. Morier says: " In front of the palace a 
circle of the king's own tribe were standing barefooted, and beating their 
breasts in cadence to the chanting of one who stood in the center, and with 
whom they now and then joined their voices in chorus. Smiting the breast 
is a universal act throughout the mourning; and the breast is made bare 
for that purpose by unbuttoning the top of the shirt." — Second Journey, etc., 
pp. 178, 179. 

785.— THE "POUND." 
XIX, 13. He called his ten servants, and delivered them ten 
pounds. 

The mina, or " pound," was not a coin, but a sum of silver reckoned by 
weight, and was worth £3 15s. 6d. sterling, or about $19 



Luke.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 421 



7§6.— ORNAMENTS OF THE TEMPLE. 

XXI, 5. Some spake of the temple, how it was adorned with 
goodly stones and gifts. 

The temple of Herod was built of stones so exceeding white that Josephus 
says the building from a distance looked like a mountain of snow. It was 
also gilded in many places, so that the reflection from the sun's rays was 
sometimes painful to the eye of the beholder. It was likewise adorned with 
barbaric spoils taken in war, and with the voluntary offerings of those who 
desired in this way to express gratitude to God for past favors, or to mani- 
fest a hope for future benefits. According to Josephus there were among 
these costly gifts golden vines from which hung clusters of grapes as tall as 
a man. See Wars of the Jews, book v, chap, v, §§ 4 and 6. 

This custom was very common among the heathen. Their idol temples 
were richly ornameuted with valuable articles, such as shields, chaplets, 
golden chains, and candlesticks, and the spoils of battle. The treasures of 
many pagan temples to-day are beyond computation. 

For a more complete description of Herod's temple, see note on Matt, 
xxiv, 1. 

787.— TEMPLE CAPTAINS. 

XXII, 4. He went his way, and communed with the chief 
priests and captains, how he might betray him unto them. 

These " captains " were not Roman military officers, but the Levitical 
officers who had charge of the temple watch. The " captain of the temple" 
mentioned in Acts iv, 1 ; v, 26, was probably the chief officer of the whole 
guard of the temple. 

78§.— GAME OF BLINDFOLDING. 
XXII, 64. "When they had blindfolded him, they struck him 
on the face, and asked him, saying, Prophesy, who is it that 
smote thee ? See also Matt, xxvi, 67, 6S; Markxiv, 65. 

Reference is thought to be made here to a sport very common in ancient 
times, resembling what is known among us as "blind-man's-buff." One 
person was blindfolded and the others struck him in turn, and then asked 
him to guess the name of the one who smote him. He was not released 
until he gave the name correctly. In this way the persecutors of Jesus 
mocked him, challenging him, if he were a prophet, to tell the names of 
his tormenters. 

7§9.— DIVISION OF JEWISH SCRIPTURES. 
XXIV, 44. In the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the 
psalms. 

This is the ordinary Jewish division of the Scriptures. The Jews have, first, 
the Law, which includes the Pentateuch; secondly, the Prophets, in which 



422 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Luke. 

are included Joshua, Judges, the two books of Samuel, the two books of 
Kings, and all the prophets except Daniel ; and thirdly, the Ragiographa, or 
Sacred Writings, in which, are comprised, in the order here named, Psalms, 
Proverbs, Job, Solomon's Song, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, 
Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and the two books of Chronicles. This third divis- 
ion was called "the Psalms," because that book was the first in the 
division. In the text it is so called by our Lord. 

790.— PRIESTLY BENEDICTION. 
XXIV, 50. He led. them out as far as to Bethany, and. he lifted 
up his hands, and blessed them. 

The priests in blessing the people lifted up their hands. Maimonides 
states that the ordinary priests raised their hands above their heads; but 
the high-priest raised his hands to a level with the plate of gold on his fore- 
head, but not above it. 



JOHN. 



791— THE SHOE-LATCHET. 

I, 27. Whose shoe's latehet I am not worthy to unloose. . 
The latehet was a leathern thong by which the sandal was fastened to the 

shoe. It was the work of a servant to loosen this, and thus John expressed 
his deep humility and consciousness of insignificance when contrasted with 
his master. See also Mark i, 7; Luke iii, 16; Acts xiii, 25. The shoe- 
latchet is likewise referred to in Isa. v, 27. 
See also note on Matt, iii, 11. 

792.— THE FIRKIN. 

II, 6. Six waterpots of stone, . . . containing two or three fir- 
kins apiece. 

The metretes, "firkin," was the principal Greek liquid measure, and con- 
tained a little more than eight gallons and seven eighths. It corresponded 
to the Hebrew lath. See note on Ezek. xlv, 10. 

793.— THE "GOVERNOR OF THE FEAST." 
II, 8. He saith unto them, Draw out now, and bear unto the 
governor of the feast. 

Among the Greeks, at all formal feasts, there was a " symposiarch." who 
was one of the guests, and was selected to take charge of the feast. It 
was his duty to preserve order, to maintain liveliness among the guests, to 



John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 423 

assign each one his proper place, to decide what proportion of water should 
be mingled with the wine, and how much each of the company was to 
drink. Among the Romans was a corresponding officer who was called rex 
convivii, or arbiter bibendi. It is thought by many that the upxiTpiiclivoc, or 
"governor of the feast" mentioned in the text, was an officer of the same 
kind. This, however, is denied by other authorities, who assert that the 
apxirpinlivos was not a guest, but a servant hired for the purpose, whose 
business it was to take charge of the other servants and see that they prop- 
erly performed their work. He had some duties in common with the sym- 
posiarch, among which was that of tasking the wine before it was offered 
to the guests. Thus when Jesus had miraculously changed the water into 
wine, he directed the servants to take some of it to " the governor of the feast." 

794— THE "FRIEND OF THE BRIDEGROOM." 

III, 29. The friend of the bridegroom, which standeth and 
heareth him, rejoieeth greatly because of the bridegroom's 
voice. 

" The friend of the bridegroom " was the person selected by the bride- 
groom to conduct the marriage negotiations on his part. It was he who 
carried messages between the bridegroom and the bride during the time of 
the betrothal. See note on Matt, i, 18. When, on the occasion of the mar- 
riage, they were brought to see each other in a private room or under a 
canopy provided for the purpose, the "friend of the bridegroom" stood 
without, eager to catch the first words of delight which came from the 
bridegroom's lips, expressive of the satisfaction he experienced on convers- 
ing with his betrothed. 

This position John the Baptist claims for himself figuratively. He is not 
the Christ, but bears a relation to him similar to that borne by the para- 
nymph to the bridegroom. He makes the arrangements for bringmg Christ, 
the bridegroom, to the Church, his bride. He waits with reverence and 
respect to hear words of joy coming from the lips of Christ because he has 
found a waiting and a willing Church. As the services of the pan-anymph 
only occupied a short time, so the Baptist's mission would soon be over : " He 
must increase, but I must decrease." Verse 30. 

?95.— DRAWING WATER. 

IV, 11. "The woman saith unto him, Sir, Thou hast nothing to 
draw with, and the well is deep. 

The wells in Palestine are usually deep. The depth of Jacob's well has 
been variously estimated by travelers from sixty-five feet to over a hundred. 
The best authorities give from seventy-five to eighty feet. To get wa'er 
from such a depth a rope is fastened to the leathern bucket or earthen jar. 



424 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[John. 



which is let down into the well, sometimes by means of a pulley, and some- 
times by merely sliding the rope over the stone curb of the well. It is no 




156.— Women Drawing Water. 

uncommon thing to find well-curbs with deep furrows in them, worn by 
the friction of the ropes which have for many years passed over them. 

796.— CONTEMPT FOR WOMEN. 
IV, 27. Upon this eame his disciples, and marveled that he 
talked with the woman. 

Their astonishment was not only because of the non-intercourse of the 
Jews and the Samaritans, but also because it was unusual for a Jewish 
teacher to converse with women in a public place. The rabbins expressed 
their contempt for women by teaching that they were not to be saluted or 
spoken to in the street, and they were not to be instructed in the law. 



797.— SEALING. 
VI, 27. Him hath God the Father sealed. 

Burder {Oriental Customs, No. 1120) suggests that there may be an allu- 
sion here to the sacrificial death of Christ, and cites from Herodotus an 
account of the ceremonies accompanying the selection of a victim for sacri- 
fice among the ancient Egyptian?. If, after careful search, the animal was 
found without blemish, the priest bound a label to his horns, applied wax to 
the label, and sealed it with his ring. This set it apart for sacrifice, and no 



John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 425 

animal could be offered unless thus sealed. We have no knowledge of any 
such ceremony among the Jews, though they were careful in selecting their 
victims ; but the sacrificial customs of other nations were doubtless known 
to them. The meaning of the text may, therefore, be, that Jesus had been 
set apart or ' : sealed " as a sacrifice in order that he might obtain eternal life 
for those who believe on him. 

On the other hand, Lightfoot interprets the passage to mean that God 
had confirmed Jesus by his seal to be " the great Ruler both of his king- 
dom and family ; " and he refers for illustration to a rabbinical form of in- 
struction which declares the seal of God to be Truth, one of the names 
which Jesus applies to himself. See John xiv, 6. Compare also John 
in, 33. 

References to the sealing or setting apart of the people of God are made 
in 2 Cor. i, 22; Eph. i, 13; iv, 30; Rev. vii, 2. For a description of seals 
and sealing hi a literal sense, see notes on 1 Kings xxi, 8, and Job 
xxxviii, 14. 

79§.— CEREMONIES AT THE FEAST OF TABERNACLES. 

VII, 37. In the last day, that great day of the feast, Jesus stood 
and cried, saying, If any man thirst, let him come unto me 
and drink. 

In addition to the ceremonies originally prescribed at the institution of the 
Feast of Tabernacles, (see note on Exod. xxiii, 16,) were several others of a 
later date. Among these was the daily drawing of water from the pool of 
Siloam. Every morning of the seven days of the feast proper, at day -break, 
a priest went to the pool of Siloam and filled with water a golden pitcher, 
containing about two pints and a half. He was accompanied by a proces- 
sion of the people and a band of music. On returning to the temple he 
was welcomed with three blasts from a trumpet, and going to the west side 
of the great altar he poured the water from the golden pitcher into a silver 
basin, which had holes in the bottom through which the water was carried 
oft". This ceremony was accompanied with songs and shouts from the 
people and with the sound of trumpets. It is supposed to have been de- 
signed to represent three distinct things : 1. A memorial of the water pro- 
vided for their fathers in the desert. 2. A symbol of the forthcoming 
"latter rain.'' 3. A representation of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit at 
the coming of the Messiah. To the last reference is made in verses 38, 39, 
and to the pouring out of the water Jesus no doubt refers in the text. 

Nearly all the authorities agree in saying that on the eighth day this cere- 
mony was dispensed with. There is great diversity of opinion, however, as 
to the meaning of "the last day. that great day of the feast; " some suppos- 
ing it to be the seventh, and others the eighth. It is urged that the eighth 



42b BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. 

day was not properly a part of the feast, but a special day of " holy con- 
vocation," the peculiar ceremonies of the feast having ceased at the close of 
the day previous, although the ritual provided special offerings for the 
eighth day. On the other hand, it is affirmed that the Jews held the eighth 
day in higher esteem than any of the seven others because they thought 
the solemnities of the day were designed especially for them, whereas on 
the other days all the nations of the world were included in the supplica- 
tions that were offered. It is sufficient for our present purpose to say that, 
if the seventh day be intended by " the last," the Saviour probably uttered 
the words of the text at the time when the water was poured out by the 
officiating priest. If the eighth day be meant, then it is probable, as Alford 
suggests, that the words were used after the singing of the Hallel, just at 
the time when, on previous days, the water had been poured out. 

It is thought by some that this custom of drawing water from Siloam 
and pouring it out by the side of the great altar was introduced before the 
Babylonish captivity, and that Isaiah refers to it when he says, " "With joy 
shall ye draw water out of the wells of salvation." Isa xii, 3. 

. 799.— FREEDOM BY THE SON. 
VIII, 36. If the Son therefore shall make you free, ye shall 
be free indeed. 

It was a custom among some of the Grecian cities to permit the son and 
heir to adopt brothers, and thereby give them a share in the rights and 
privileges enjoyed by himself. To this some think reference is made in the 
text. Others thiuk the reference is to a Roman custom by which the son, 
after his father's death, might, if he chose, give freedom to the slaves that 
were born in the house during his father's time. 

§00.— JEWISH HATRED OF SAMARITANS. 
VIII. 48. Say we not well that thou art a Samaritan and hast 
a devil ? 

The contempt and hatred which the Jews entertained toward the Samar- 
itans was manifested, not only in their refusal to have any dealings with 
them beyond what was demanded by necessity, (see chap, iv, 9.) but also 
in the fact that the Jews made the name of Samaritan a synonym for every 
thing that was vile and contemptible. As Lightfoot remarks, they could not 
in this instance have mistaken Jesus for a Samaritan literally, because, 
according to verse 20, he was in the treasury of the temple, a place where 
no Samaritan was permitted to come. They used the term figuratively as a 
reproach. Bosenmiiller says: "There was a notorious and deadly hatred 
between the Jews and Samaritans on account of religion. For this reason 
the Jews, in the language of common life, applied the epithet ' Samaritan. ' 



John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 427 

not only to one who belonged to Samaria, but to every one whom they sup- 
posed had the mode of thinking and the principles of a Samaritan ; and 
they, therefore, often designated by this name a sworn enemy of the Jew- 
ish people and the Jewish religion, and a morally bad man. So, in our own 
language, a man who has a propensity to cruelty and despotism we call a 
Turk, and a covetous rich man a Jew." — Morgeriland, vol. v, p. 241. 

§01.— PERIOD OF MATURITY. 

VIII, 57. Thou, art not yet fifty years old, and. hast thou seen 
Abraham? 

The Jews considered fifty years as a period of maturity in human life. 
The expression in the text is therefore not to be considered, as some have 
strangely done, to imply that Jesus was nearly fifty years old at this time, 
but simply that, still being a young man, it was impossible that he could have 
seen Abraham. 

§02.— EXCOMMUNICATION. 

IX, 22. The Jews had agreed already, that if any man did con- 
fess that he was Christ, he should be put out of the synagogue. 

According to the Talmud and the rabbins there were two, and perhaps 
three, grades of excommunication among the Jew r s. The first was called 
niddin, and those on whom it was pronounced were not permitted for thirty 
days to have any communication with any person save at a distance of four 
cubits. They were not prohibited from attending public worship, though 
they could not during the thirty days enter the temple by the ordinary gate. 
They were not allowed during that time to shave, and were required to wear 
garments of mourning. The second was called cherem. and was pronounced 
on those who remained contumacious under the first. It was of greater 
severity than the other, and required the presence of at least ten members 
of the congregation to make it valid. The offender was formally cursed, was 
excluded from all intercourse with other people, and was prohibited from 
entering the temple or a synagogue. The third was called shamm.atha, and 
was inflicted on those who persisted in their contumacy. By this they were 
cut off from all connection with the Jewish people, and were consigned to 
utter perdition. It is not clear, however, that there was any real distinction 
between the second and third grades here noted. 

Lightfoot suggests (in Horce Hr.braicce, on 1 Cor. v, 5) that the penalty of 
excommunication was probably inflicted for those faults for which neither 
the law nor tradition made any certain provision. The Talmud assigns as 
the two general causes of excommunication, money and epicurism. The first 
refers to those who refused to pay the moneys which the court directed them 
to pay; and the second refers to those who despised the word of God or 
of the scribes. Some rabbinical writers enumerate twenty-four different 



428 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[John. 



offenses for which excommunication was inflicted, some of them being frivo- 
lous in the extreme. 

Excommunication is alluded to in Matt, xviii, 17 ; John ix, 34; xii, 42 ; and 
xvi, 2. Some think our Lord, in Luke vi, 22, refers to the several grades 
above noticed: "Blessed are ye, when men shall hate you, and when they 
shall separate you from their company, and shall reproach you, and cast out 
your name as evil, for the Son of man's sake." 

803.— THE SHEEP-FOLD. 
X, 1. He that entereth not by the door into the sheep-fold, but 
elimbeth up some other way, the same is a thief and a robber. 

In this beautiful figure reference is made to the place of shelter for the 
sheep where they might repose at night, and be safe from the attacks of wild 




157. — SlIEEP-FOLD. 

The modern sheep-folds of Syria, which no doubt resemble those 
of ancient times, are low, flat buildings opening into a court, which is sur- 
rounded by a stone wall, protected on the top by a layer of thorns. A door- 
way carefully guarded forms the entrance. Sheep-folds are referred to in a 
number of passages. See Num. xxxii, 16, 24, 36; 1 Sam. xxiv, 3; 2 Chron. 
xxxii, 28; Psa. Ixxviii, 70. 

804.— SHEPHERD AND SHEEP. 
X, 3-5. He ealleth his own sheep by name, and leadeth 
them out. And when he putteth forth his own sheep, he goeth 
before them, and the sheep follow him : for they know his 
voice. And a stranger will they not follow, but will flee from 
him; for they know not the voice of strangers. 

1. The Eastern shepherds give names to their sheep, as we do to dogs 
and horses. Every sheep recognizes his own name, and comes when called. 



John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 429 

2 Travelers have noticed the wonderful readiness with which the sheep of 
a large flock will recognize the shepherd's voice. Though several flocks are 
mingled they speedily separate at the command of the shepherd, while the 
word of a stranger would have no effect on them. Porter thus describes a 
scene he witnessed among the hills of Bashan : "The shepherds led their 
flocks forth from the gates of the city. They were in full view, and we 
watched them and listened to them with no little interest. Thousands of 
sheep and goats were there, grouped in dense, confused masses. The shep- 
herds stood together until all came out. Then they separated, each shepherd 
taking a different path, and uttering as he advanced a shrill, peculiar call. 
The sheep heard them. At first the masses swayed and moved as if shaken 
by some internal convulsion ; then points struck out in the direction taken by 
the shepherds; these became longer and longer until the confused masses 
were resolved into long, living streams, flowing after their leaders." — Giant 
Cities of Bashan, p. 45. 

§05.— THE FEAST OF DEDICATION 

X, 22. It was at Jerusalem the feast of the dedication, and it 
was winter. 

This was a feast instituted in honor of the restoration of divine worship in 
the temple, and its formal rededication to sacred uses after it had been 
defiled by the heathen under Antiochus Epiphanes. This dedication took 
place B. C. 164, and an account of it is given in the apocryphal book of 
1 Maccabees iv, 52-59. The feast lasted two days, and could be celebrated 
not only in Jerusalem but elsewhere. 

In later times it was known by the name of the " Feast of Lamps," or the 
"Feast of Lights," because of the custom of illuminating the houses while 
celebrating it. The rabbins have a tradition that, when the Jews under 
Judas Maccabeus drove the heathen out of the temple and cleansed it from 
its pollution, they found a solitary bottle of sacred oil which had escaped the 
profane search of the heathen. This was all they had for lighting the sacred 
lamps ; but by a miracle this was made to last for eight days, which period 
was therefore the time for the duration of the feast. 

§06.— THE HOURS OF THE DAY. 

XI, 9. Are there not twelve hours in the day ? 

The Jewish day was reckoned from evening to evening. See note on 
1 Cor. xv, 4. The word "day" was, however, used in another sense also, 
as with us, to denote that portion of the twenty-four hours during which 
the sun shone. While the night was divided into watches, (see note on 
Mark xiii, 35,) the day was divided into hours ; each of these hours being 
one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset. Thus the hours varied 



430 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. 

in length according to the time of year, the summer hours being longer than 
those of winter. In the latitude of Palestine the longest day has, according 
to our reckoning, fourteen hours and twelve minutes, and the shortest nine 
hours and forty-c'ght minutes. This makes a difference of four hours and 
twenty-four minutes between the longest day and shortest. If we divide the 
day into twelve hours, there will be found a difference of twenty-two minutes 
between the longest hour and the shortest, the length of the hour varying 
from forty-nine minutes to seventy-one. 

The first hour began at sunrise, the sixth ended at noon, and the twelfth 
ended at sunset. The third hour divided the period between sunrise and 
noon, and the ninth between noon and sunset. The first at its close cor- 
responded nearly to seven o'clock A. M. of our time, and the twelfth hour to 
six o'clock P. M. 

The " third hour " is mentioned in Matt, xx, 3 ; Mark xv, 25 ; Acts ii, 15. 
It may be roughly reckoned at nine o'clock A. M. of our time. The " sixth 
hour " is named in Matt, xx, 5 ; xxvii, 45 ; Mark xv, 33 ; Luke xxiii, 44 ; 
Johniv, 6; xix, 14; Acts x, 9. It corresponded exactly to twelve o'clock 
noon of our time. The li seventh hour" is mentioned in John iv, 52. It 
was about one o'clock P. M. The "ninth hour" is spoken of in Matt. 
xx, 5; xxvii, 45, 46; Mark xv, 33, 34; Luke xxiii, 44; Acts hi, 1; x, 3. 
It was about three o'clock P. M. The " tenth hour " is named in John i, 39. 
It was about four o'clock P. M. Some commentators, however, contend that 
John, writing this Gospel in the later years of his life, referred to Roman 
time and not to Jewish, thus making the hour ten o'clock A. M. This could 
hardly be, unless all his other estimates of time were reckoned in the same 
way, which, from a consideration of various texts, is highly improbable ; be- 
sides, as Lucke (cited by Alford) remarks, even among the Romans the 
division of the day into twelve equal hours was, though not the civil, the 
popular way of computing time. The "eleventh hour " is mentioned in 
Matt, xx, 6, 9, and corresponds nearly to five o'clock P. M. 

There also seems to have been a popular mode of reckoning the hours of 
the night in a similar way, as well as by watches. " Midnight " is men- 
tioned as a particular "hour." Compare Acts xvi, 25, with xvi, 33. "The 
third hour of the night" is named in Acts xxiii, 23. This was about nine 
o'clock P. M. 

807.— DOUBLE NAMES. 

XI, 16. Thomas, which is called Didymus. 

Both these names have the same signification, a twin ; Thomas being 
Aramaic, and Didymus, Greek. It is said to have been customary for the 
Jews when traveling into foreign countries, or familiarly conversing with 
the Greeks or Romans, to assume a Greek or Latin name of similar 
meaning to their own. 



John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 431 

808.— RABBINICAL NOTIONS OF SOUL AND BODY. 
XI, 17. Then when Jesus came, he found that he had. lain in 
the grave four days already. 

The three days after death were called "days of weeping," which were 
followed by four "days of lamentation," thus making up the seven " days of 
mourniDg." See note on Gen. xxvii, 41. According to the rabbinical 
notion the spirit wanders about the sepulcher for three days seeking an op- 
portunity to return into the body ; but when the aspect of the body changes 
it hovers no more, but leaves the body to itself. The friends of the deceased 
were in the habit of visiting the sepulcher for three days after death and burial, 
(see note on Acts v, 6,) probably because they supposed they would thus be 
nearer to the departed soul. When the fourth day came and decomposition 
took place, and the soul, as they supposed, went away from the sepulcher, 
they beat their breast and made loud lamentations. This explains the al- 
lusion to the " four days " in this text and in verse 39. To say that one had 
been in the grave four days was equivalent to saying that bodily corruption 
had begun. 

809— THE FURLONG. 
XI, 18. Bethany was nigh unto Jerusalem about fifteen fur- 
longs off. 

The stadium, or " furlong," mentioned here and in Luke xxiv, 13 ; John 
vi, 19; Rev. xiv, 20; xxi, 16, was not so long as our English furlong, being 
six hundred and six feet and nine inches in length. 

810.— FORMAL CONDOLENCE. 
XI, 19. Many of the Jews came to Martha and Mary to com- 
fort them concerning their brother. 

The formal visitation of condolence from friends took place immediately 
after burial, and lasted several days. As soon as they returned from the 
grave the mourners stood in a row, and their friends passed by, each speak- 
ing a word of comfort while passing. There were afterward visits of sym- 
pathy at the house, those on the third day being specially marked. It was 
thus that a large company assembled at the house of the sorrowing sisters. 

811.— WEEPING AT THE GRAVE. 

XI, 81. She goeth unto the grave to weep there. 

It is very common for the friends of deceased persons — especially for the 
women — to make formal visits to the grave for the purpose of audibly 
expressing their grief. Prof. Hackett, on visiting a Syrian town, was com- 
pelled by the quarantine officers to pitch his tent in a grave-yard, where he 



432 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. 

observed a great number of women who surrounded the graves of their 
friends, and shrieked and wept for a long time. See Illustrations of Scrip- 
ture, p. 111. Porter noticed a similar custom in the Druse couDtry, where 
he found a long procession of women near a clump of newly-made graves. 
"As they marched with stately steps around the tombs they sung a wild 
chant, that now echoed through the whole glen and now sunk into the 
mournful cadence of a death-waiL" — Giant Cities of Bashan, etc., p. 39. 
When the Jews saw Mary hastily arise and leave the house they supposed 
she was going to the grave according to custom. It was thus the two 
Marys visited the sepulcher of the Lord. See Matt, xxvii, 61; xxviii, 1. 

812.— THE POUND. 

XII, 3. Then Mary took, a pound, of ointment of spikenard, 
■very costly. 

The Xirpa, " pound," varied in weight in different countries. The Roman 
libra, which is supposed to be the weight mentioned in the text, was equal 
to nearly twelve ounces avoirdupois. 

813.— NEED OF FEET-WASHING. 

XIII, 10. He that is washed needeth not save to wash his feet. 

The meaning of the passage will be more readily perceived if, for washed, 
we read bathed, which is the idea conveyed by the original word. Allusion 
is probably made to the fact that one who has been to the bath need only, on 
returning to his house, wash the dust of the road from his sandaled feet. 
Thus he that has bathed need " not save to wash his feet." 

814.— POSITION AT TABLE. 
XIII, 23. Now there was leaning on Jesus' bosom one of his 
disciples, whom Jesus loved. 

Reclining on the triclinium, or dinner-bed, the guest lay usually upon his 
left side, leaving his right hand free to reach the food. See note on Matt, 
xxvi, 7. His head would thus easily come into contact with the breast of 
the person on his left. It was in this way that John leaned on the bosom 
of Jesus while at supper. This is also mentioned in John xiii, 25 ; xxi, 20. 
A figurative use of the custom referred to is made in Luke xvi, 22, 23 ; 
John i, 18. 

815.— THE "SOP." 

XIII, 26. Jesus answered, He it is, to whom I shall give a sop, 
when I have dipped it. And when he had dipped the sop, 
he gave it to Judas Iseariot, the son of Simon. 

It was customary for the host to give to such of his guests as he chose a 
" sop," or thin piece of bread dipped into the food in the dish, and saturated 




158.— Women Mourning at the Grave. 



John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 435 

with its fluid part. See note on Mark xiv, 20, Jowett, in speaking of an 
entertainment at which he was a guest, says: " When the master of the 
house found in the dish any dainty morsel, he took it out with his fingers 
and applied it to my mouth." — Researches, etc, p. 210. 

This verse is of interest, since, taken in connection with the twenty-third 
verse, (see note preceding,) it indicates the position of Judas at the feast. 
He must have been very near to Jesus since he was within reach of his 
hand. He was very probably next to him; and since John lay to the right 
of the Saviour, Judas in all probability was at his left. If so, the Saviour 
must at times have laid his head on the traitor's breast ; and thus the base 
treachery of Judas is seen in a most revolting aspect. While the Master 
was pillowing his head upon him he was meditating on the chances of 
securing the blood-money for which he had contracted to betray his 
Lord! 

816.— PLACE FOR GARDENS. 
XVIII, 1. He went forth with his disciples over the brook 
Cedron, where was a garden. 

Gardens were made outside of the cities. The rabbins assign as a reason 
for this the foul smells which arose from the weeds and from the manure 
which was necessary for fertilizing. " Upon this account there were no 
gardens in the city, (some few gardens of roses excepted, which had been 
so from the days of the prophets,) but all were without the walls, especially 
at the foot of Olivet." — Lightfoot, Ilorce, Helraicce, Matt, xxvii, 60. 



817.— LANTERNS. 
XVIII, 3. Judas then, having received a band of men and 
officers from the chief priests and Pharisees, eometh thither 
with lanterns and torches arid weapons. 

There are several varieties of lanterns in use in Palestine 
at the present day. One of these commonly used is made 
of waxed linen, or even of paper, stretched over rings of 
wire, and having a top and bottom of tinned copper. When 
folded the candle projects above the top of the folds, so that 
the lantern may, in the house, serve the purpose of a candle- 
stick. This style of lantern is of ancient use. Transparent 
horn lanterns were also used ; and bladder was sometimes 
substituted for horn. 

The lanterns used by the officers on the occasion of the 
arrest of Jesus were doubtless of some strong serviceable 
material, perhaps of horn. The dark lantern was sometimes 
used by civil and military officers. It was square, with n 159.— Lastbrn. 





436 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. 

white skin on one side and black skins on the three other sides. See 
Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities, s. v. Laterxa. 

818.— FEMALE DOOR-KEEPERS. 
XV-III, 17. The damsel that kept the door. 
"Women were often employed by the ancients as porters. Classical 
writers make frequent allusion to the custom. It is mentioned also in the 
account of Peter's deliverance from prison, wherein it is stated that the 
house of Mary, the mother of John Mark, had a female porter. See Acts 
xii, 13. 

819.-^CHARCOAL. 
XVIII, 18. Made a fire of coals, for it was cold ; and they 
warmed themselves. 

Charcoal is of ancient origin, and is still used for fuel in Palestine, though 
not so commonly employed for that purpose as sticks and other articles. 
See notes on 1 Kings xvii, 10; Psa. lviii, 9; and Matt, vi, 30. It was 
doubtless the material used for the fire spoken of in the text, and was prob- 
ably burning in a pan or brazier made of metal or earthenware. 

Charcoal is also referred to in Prov. xxvi, 21, (where the distinction is 

finely made between dead and burning coals ;) Isa. xliv, 12; liv, 16; and 

John xxi, 9. 

820.— BEARING THE CROSS. 

XIX, 17. And he bearing his cross went forth. 
A. cross sufficiently large and strong to hold the body of a man, and long 
enough to allow a suitable portion to rest in the ground, would be too 
heavy for any ordinary man to carry. Some have, therefore, supposed that 
the cross which the condemned bore, according to the Roman law, was 
merely a miniature representation of the cross on which he was to suffer 
death ; and that he was compelled to carry it to the place of execution to 
indicate to the spectators in the streets through which he passed the kind 
of death he was about to suffer. It would thus be a public badge of his 
shame. Lipsius, however, says that only a part of the cross was borne by 
the condemned, and that this part was the horizontal beam, which was the 
lighter of the two pieces of which the cross was composed. The heavier 
part, the perpendicular, was either planted in the earth before the arrival of 
the procession, or was ready to be set up as soon as the condemned man 
arrived with the transverse beam. 

821.— THE TUNIC. 

XIX 23. The coat was without seam, woven from the top 
throughout. 

yituv was a tunic or inner garment which was worn next to the skin. It 
usually had sleeves, and generally reached to the knees, though sometimes 



John.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 437 

to the ankles. It is mentioned in Matt, v, 40; Luke vi, 29; Acts ix, 39. 
Sometimes, for luxury, two tunics were worn at the same time. This our 
Lord forbade his disciples. See Matt, x, 10: Mark vi, 9; Luke hi, 11; 
ix, 3. When a person had on no garment but this he was said to be 
" naked." See note on 1 Sam. xix, 24. 

These tunics were sometimes woven in one piece. Braun, a German 
theologian of the seventeenth century, wrote a quarto volume in Latin de- 
scriptive of the dress of the Jewish priests. In this he describes at length 
the manner in which seamless coats were woven, and gives pictorial illus- 
trations. He had one of them made for himself by a weaver, according to 
directions which he gave, and on a loom made for the purpose. Seamless 
coats are still found in India and in other parts of the East. 

822.— PREPARATION FOR BURIAL. 

XIX, 40. Then took they the body of Jesus, and wound it in 
linen clothes with the spiees, as the manner of the Jews is 
to bury. 

This was not embalming, according to the Egyptian method, as described 
in the note on Gen. 1, 2, 3. The Jews simply anointed the body, and 
wrapped it in fine linen, putting spices and ointments in the folds. In our 
Saviour's case the operation was not completed, owing to the coming of the 
Sabbath. As soon as the Sabbath was over the pious women came to com- 
plete the work. See Mark xvi, 1. The use of ointment in burial is referred 
to in Matt, xxvi, 12; Mark xiv, 8 ; John xii, 7. 

John and Luke are the only evangelists who speak of the ointment and 
spices at the burial of Christ. See text, and Luke xxiii, 56. All four of 
them, however, mention the linen clothes. See Matt, xxvii, 59; Mark 
xv, 46; Luke xxiii, 53; text; and John xx, 5-7. These are also named in 
connection with the burial of Lazarus. See John xi, 44. It is there said 
that he was " bound hand and foot with grave-clothes," and skeptics have 
made themselves merry with the absurdity of the story that a man having 
both feet bound together should be able to "come forth." That the feet 
were bound together is, however, a gratuitous assumption. If each leg and 
each arm were separately swathed in linen bandages the assertion of the 
evangelist would still be strictly true, for Lazarus would then have been 
" bound hand and foot," while at the same time able, at the command of 
Christ, to move, though not to walk easily. 

A " napkin " is also mentioned in connection with the burial of Lazarus. 
It was bound about his face. See John xi, 44. One was also used at the 
burial of Jesus. See John xx, 7. This was a handkerchief which was em- 
ployed to tie up the chin of a corpse. 

Reference to the use of linen bandages in burial is also seen in the account 

27 



438 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [John. 

of the burial of Ananias, wherein it is said that "they wound him up." 
See Acts v, 6. 

823 .— S ALU TAT ION. 
XX, 19. Came Jesus and. stood in the midst, and saith unto 
them, Peace be unto you. 

This was the most common form of salutation among the Hebrews, and is 
often referred to in the Scriptures. In the history of Joseph it is said that 
"when his brethren saw that their father loved him more than all his 
brethren, they hated him, and could not speak peaceably unto him." Gen. 
xxxvii, 4. That is, they refused to give him the ordinary salutation of the 
day, "Peace be unto you." See also Judges x'\x, 20; 1 Sam. xxv, 6; Matt. 
x, 12, 13. These salutations of peace were often merely ceremonial, having 
in them no real hearty meaning; but Jesus informed his disciples that when 
he uttered the word "Peace," it was something more than a mere conform- 
ity to a worldly custom : " Peace I leave with you, my peace I give unto 
you : not as the world giveth, give I unto you." John xiv, 27. 



THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. 

824.— A SABBATH DAY'S JOURNEY. 

I, 12. Then returned they unto Jerusalem from the mount 
called Olivet, -which is from Jerusalem a Sabbath day's 
journey. 

This was the distance beyond which it was considered unlawful for a Jew 
to travel on the Sabbath day. Its limitation is supposed to have originated in 
the rabbinical comment on Exod. xvi. 29, where every man is commanded to 
abide in his place on the Sabbath. Our Lord is thought to have in mind the 
customary limit of a Sabbath day's journey when he directs his disciples to 
pray that their flight be not on the Sabbath day. See Matt, xxiv, 20. 

The distance to be understood by this limited Sabbath travel is variously 
estimated at three quarters of a mile, one mile, one mile and three quarters, 
and two miles. The best authorities represent it as three quarters of a 
mile. 

825.— TIME FOR EATING. 

II, 15. For these are not drunken, as ye suppose, seeing it is 
but the third hour of the day. 

It was not usual to eat or drink on any day before the third hour, at 
which time the morning sacrifice was performed. Lightfoot, on authority 




160— House-top. 



Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 441 

of Baronius, says : " And on these solemn festival-days they used not to 
eat or driok any thing till high-noon." — fforce Hebraicce. This custom fur- 
nished a ready answer from Peter to the charge of drunkenness. 

826.— TIME FOR BURIAL. 
Y, 6. The young men arose, wound him up, and carried 
him out, and buried him. 

It was usual in Palestine to bury a corpse on the day of death. The heat 
of the climate, doubtless, had much to do with this custom ; besides which, 
so far as the Jews were concerned, their law made any one unclean for 
seven days who touched a dead body, or who was even in a house where a 
dead body lay. See Num. xix, 11, 14. Lazarus was probably buried on 
the day of his death. See John xi, IT, 39. Sapphira, the wife of Ananias, 
was, like her husband, buried immediately after death. See Acts v, 10. 

§27.— READING ALOUD. 

VIII, 2S. Sitting in his chariot read Esaias the prophet. 

From verse thirty it is evident that the eunuch was reading aloud. It is 
still a common custom of the " Orientals generally to read aloud, even 
when they do it for their own instruction only, and without any intention 
of being heard by others. They swing the head, and even the entire upper 
part of the body, from one side to the other as they perform the act, and 
utter the words with a tone which comes nearer to singing or cantillation 
than to our unim passioned mode of reading." — Hackett's Illustrations of 
Scripture, p. 224. 

§2§.— COMPLIMENTARY NAMES. 

IX, 36. There Was at Joppa a certain disciple named Tabitha, 
-which by interpretation is called Dorcas. 

Dorcas means antelope, or gazelle. This beautiful animal is much admired 
in the East, and it is a common compliment to tell a woman that she has 
the eyes of an antelope. It is also no uncommon thing among Eastern 
nations to name their girls after various animals noted for beauty. 

829.— PRAYER ON THE HOUSETOP. 

X, 9. Peter went up upon the housetop to pray about the 
sixth hour. 

The housetop was used, not only as a place of idolatrous worship, (see 
note on Lev. xxvi, 30,) but also for the worship of the true God. To us 
this would seem to be a singular place for prayer, unless one wished to in- 
dulge in Pharisaic ostentation ; but the battlement around the flat roof of 
an Oriental dwelling (see note on Dent, xxii, 8) might readily be used as 



442 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Acts. 



a screen from public observation. It may be that one reason why the Jews 
prayed upon the housetop was that they might more readily look in the 
direction of the temple in Jerusalem. See note on Dan. vi, 10. 

§30.— THE MILITARY NIGHT-WATCH. 

XII, 4. When he had. apprehended, him, he put him in 
prison, and delivered him to four quaternions of soldiers to 
keep him. 

The usual number of a Roman military night-watch was four, and the 
watch was changed every three hours. Thus during the twelve hours of 
night there would be four of these watches or " quaternions." Of these 
two were in the prison, (see verse 6,) and two were sentinels before the 
door. See verse 10, and the latter part of verse 6. 

831.— PRISONERS CHAINED. 
XII, 6. Peter was sleeping between two soldiers, bound with 
two chains. 

Among the Romans the prisoner was bound to the soldier who had 
charge of him by means of a chain, which joined the prisoner's right wrist 
to the left wrist of the soldier. Sometimes, for greater security, the pris- 
oner was chained to two soldiers, one on each side of him. This was the 
case with Peter. Paul was at one time bouud in a similar way. See Acts 
xxi, 33. At another time he was fastened to a single soldier. See Acts 
xxviii, 16, 20. 

§32.— SANDALS. 

XII, 8. The angel said unto him, Gird thyself, and bind on thy 
sandals. 

The sandal consists of a wooden or leathern sole, which is fastened to the 
foot by thongs or latchets. The Bedawin of Mount Sinai wear sandals 

made of "fish-skin," or rather of the 
hide of a species of Dugong obtained 
from the Red Sea, near Sherm. See 
Yammer's Desert of the Exodus, p. 81. 
The leathern thongs which are used 
to keep the sandals on the feet are re- 
ferred to in Mark i, 7, and in Luke 
161.— Sahdal. \[\ jg # 

833.— KNOCKER— STREET-DOOR. 
XII, 13. As Peter knocked at the door of the gate, a damsel 
came to hearken, named Rhoda. 

1. The door of an Eastern house usually has an iron knocker, consisting 
of a thick ring. 




Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 443 

2. " The door of the gate " is the outer or street door ; the door of the 
porch, or entrance way to the house. This outer door or gale sometimes 
has a smaller door cut into it, which can be more readily opened, and is 
more frequently used than the large door of which it forms a part. Some 
writers think that a door of this description is referred to in the text. 

§34.— THE LAW AND THE PROPHETS— RULERS OF THE 
SYNAGOGUE. 
XIII, 15. After the reading of the law and the prophets, the 
rulers of the synagogue sent unto them. 

1. The custom of reading the law publicly was very ancient. The 
" prophets " are said to have been added in a singular way. " When Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes burnt the book of the law, and forbade the reading of it, 
the Jews, in the room of it, selected some passages out of the prophets 
which they thought came nearest in words and sense to the sections of 
the law, and read them in their stead ; but when the law was restored 
again they still continued the reading of the prophetic sections." — Stehe- 
lin's Traditions of the Jews, cited by Burder, Oriental Customs, No. 1160. 
Hence the expression "the law and the prophets" was used to denote the 
portion of Scripture that was read in the synagogue, and, by synecdoche, 
the whole of the Jewish Scriptures. See Matt, v, 17 ; Luke xvi, 29. As a 
matter of fact, however, the Hagiographa, or "Holy Writings," which com- 
posed the third part of the Jewish Scriptures, (see note on Luke xxiv, 44,) 
was not read in the synagogue. 

2. The "ruler of the synagogue" occupied a very important position. In 
the temple synagogue he was the third officer in rank; the first officer being 
the high priest, and the second the chief of the priests. In provincial 
synagogues the "ruler" was supreme. No one was eligible to this office 
until he had a certificate from the Great Sanhedrim that he possessed the 
requisite qualifications. His election, however, was by the members of the 
synagogue. It was his duty to supervise all matters connected with worship. 

Sometimes this office is mentioned in the singular number, as if there 
were but one ruler to the synagogue. See Mark v, 35, 36, 38; Luke 
viii, 49 ; xiii, 14. At other times the plural form is used, as in the text. See 
Mark v, 22. The idea of plurality is also implied in the expression, "a ruler 
of the synagogue," (Luke viii, 41,) and in the words "chief ruler." Acts 
xviii, 8, 17. Neander suggests that " we must make the limitation, that in 
smaller places an individual, as in larger towns a plurality, stood at the head 
of the synagogue. It is most probable that, although all presbyters were 
called upxiovvayuyoi, yet one who acted as president was distinguished by 
the title of upxicrvvdyuyog ; as primus inter pares. 11 — Planting and Training, 
(Edition, Bohn.) vol. i, p. 36, note. Thus the " rulers " would be the same aa 



44-i BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. 

the <: elders" mentioned in Luke vu, 3, and elsewhere. Some suppose them 
to be identical with the local Sanhedrim. See note on Matt, x, 17. 

835 —GODS IN HUMAN FORM. 
XIV, 11. The gods are come down to us in the likeness of 
men. 

It was a common opinion among the ancient heathen that the gods were 
accustomed to visit men in human form. Frequent reference is made to 
this opinion by classical writers. There was a tradition among this very 
people that Jupiter and Mercury had once appeared in Phrygia to an aged 
couple, Philemon and Baucis. In this visit the two gods were entertained 
by Lycaon, whence the name of the province, Lycaonia. 

836.— JUPITER AND MERCURY. 
XIV, 12. They called Barnabas, Jupiter ; and Paul, Mereurius, 
because he was the chief speaker. 

Jupiter, called Zevg by the Greeks, was the supreme head of all the 
heathen divinities. He had a temple at Lystra. Mercury, called 'Epfirjg by 
the Greeks, was a son of Jupiter, and the herald or messenger of all the 
gods. Hence he was the god of eloquence. These two deities were sup- 
posed to travel together. Thus the people, having decided that Paul, by 
reason of his eloquence, must be Mercury, inferred that his traveling com- 
panion was Jupiter. This renders unnecessary the suggestion of Chrysos- 
tom, that Barnabas was probably of more majestic mien than Paul, and 
therefore was thought to be Jupiter. 

837.— IDOLATROUS GARLANDS. 
XIV, 13. Then the priest of Jupiter, which -was before their 
city, brought oxen and garlands unto the gates, and would 
have done sacrifice with the people. 

It was customary to build temples to the tutelar deities in the suburbs 
of the cities, and to set up their images before the city at the gates. These 
images, and the victims which were sacrificed to them, were crowned with 
garlands of cypress, pine, or other leaves, or of flowers. The garlands were 
sometimes placed upon the altars, and then again upon the priests. 

In India, flowers are used in idolatrous worship on gods, priests, and 
worshipers, and are presented to friends as a mark of respect. Roberts says: 
"In the latter part of 1832 I visited the celebrated pagoda of Rami-seram, 
the temple of Ramar. As soon as I arrived within a short distance of the 
gates, a number of dancing-girls, priests, and others came to meet us with 
garlands. They first did me the honor of putting one around my neck, and 
they presented others for Mrs. Roberts and the children." — Oriental Illustra- 
tions, p, 567, 



Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 4t!5 

§38.— PLACES OF PRAYER. 
XVI, 13. "We went out of the city by a river side, where prayer 
was wont to be made. 

Many writers suppose that there is reference here to the Jewish custom of 
having proseuchce, or places of prayer, distinct from synagogues, and in 
locations where there were no synagogues. Though some commentators 
deny the reference to the custom in this passage, }-et the existence of the 
custom itself is undeniable. The proseuclio& were places for prayer outside of 
those towns where the Jews were too poor to have synagogues, or were not 
permitted to have them. They were generally located near the water for 
the convenience of ablution. Sometimes a large building was erected ; but 
frequently the jproseucha was simply a retired place in the open air or in a 
grove. 

Rivers seem to have been favorite places of resort for God's people. In 
captivity they assembled "by the rivers of Babylon." Psa. cxxxvii, 1. 
Ezekiel speaks of being among them " by the river of Chebar." Ezek. i, 1. 
Daniel was "by the river of Ulai" when he beheld one of his visions, (Dan. 
viii, 2;) and he saw another when he was "by the side of the great river, 
which is Hiddekel." Dan. x, 4. Dr. Pusey quotes from a decree of the 
Halicarnassians, which gave leave " that those of the Jews who willed, men 
and women, should keep the Sabbaths, and perform their rites according to 
the Jewish laws, and make oratories by the sea according to their country's 
wont." — Pusey on Daniel, pp. 110, 111. 

§39.- STOCKS. 
XVI, 24. Who, having received such a charge, thrust them 
into the inner prison, and made their feet fast in the stocks. 

Some would understand by tjvXov, "stocks," simply a bar of wood to 
which the feet of the prisoner were chained. Others suppose the instru- 
ment to have cor- 
responded to the 
modern stocks, 
consisting of a 
*in-~^ IPS^aHt:-£> :-■-.-- i : '^^' \. *■■•.. ^M£\ll5 frame of wood in 

which the two feet, 
separated far apart, 

were placed. 
162,-In the Stocks. There were somQ 

ancient stocks in which were five holes for fastening feet, hands, and head. 
In Ceylon, at the present day, an instrument similar to this is used, only the 
head is allowed to be free. 

The use of the stocks is very ancient. See Job xiii, 27. 




•446 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. 



840.— RESPONSIBILITY OF JAILERS. 
XVI, 27. He drew out his sword, and would have killed him- 
self, supposing that the prisoners had been fled. 

According to the Roman law, if a prisoner escaped, the jailer who had him 
in charge was compelled to suffer the penalty which was to have been in- 
flicted on the prisoner. This accounts for the despair of the jailer in this 
case. He preferred death by his own hands to the death by torture, which 
probably awaited some of the condemned prisoners whom be supposed to 
have escaped. 

841.— ROMAN CITIZENS NOT TO BE BEATEN. 

XVI, 37. They have beaten us openly uneondemned, being 
Romans, and have east us into prison. 

The treatment of these prisoners, being Roman citizens, was illegal in 
three different ways: 1. In binding them in the ttocks. 2. In beating 
them. 3. In failing to give them a trial. The Valerial law forbade the bind- 
ing of a Roman citizen. The Porcian law forbade his being beaten. Cicero, 
in his celebrated Oration against Verres, asserts that " it is a transgression 
of the law to bind a Roman citizen ; it is wickedness to scourge him. 
Unheard, no man can be condemned." 

This will account for the fear expressed by the magistrates when they 
heard that the prisoners were Romans. See verse 38. Paul had a similar 
experience afterward in Jerusalem : "As they bound him with thongs, Paul 
said unto the centurion that stood by, Is it lawful for you to scourge a man 
that is a Roman, and uneondemned." Acts xxii, 25. 

842.— DEBATES IN THE MARKET PLACE. 

XVII, 17. Therefore disputed he ... in the market daily 
with them that met with him. 

The market was not only a place for buying and selling, for hiring and 
being hired, (see note on Matt, xx, 3,) but it was also a public resort for all 
who wished to inquire the news or to hold disputations. For this reason 
the Pharisees loved to go there, because, amid the crowds assembled, they 
would receive the ceremonious salutations in which they delighted. See 
Matt, xxiii, 7 ; Mark xii, 38 ; Luke xi, 43 ; xx, 46. 

The Athenian market, or Agora, must not be imagined to be " like the 
bare spaces in many modern towns, where little attention has been paid to 
artistic decoration, but is rather to be compared to the beautiful squares of 
such Italian cities as Yerona and Florence, where historical buildings have 
closed in the space within narrow limits, and sculpture has peopled it with 
impressive figures." — Conybeare and Howson, Life of St Paul, vol. i, 
p. 354. 



Acts] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 447 

§43.— EPICUREANS— STOICS. 

XVII, 18. Then certain philosophers of the Epicureans, and of 
the Stoics, encountered, him. 

1. Epicurus, the founder of the sect which bore his name, was born at 
Samos about 340 B. C. He early adopted the atomic theory of Democritus, 
and taught philosophy in Athens for nearly forty years, his place of in- 
struction being a beautiful garden in the heart of the city. According to 
the Epicureans the universe consists of matter and space. Matter is un- 
created and indestructible. It is composed of minute atoms, infinite in 
number and imperceptible to the senses. These atoms may change in 
mutual relation and in combination, but they cannot be annihilated. They 
are perpetually moving in space, and are constantly undergoing transpo- 
sitions of form, but are regulated by no law save that of blind chance. Epi- 
curus believed in the existence of the gods, but this belief was practically 
no better than atheism, since he denied that the gods had any part in the 
operations of nature. There was in his system no room for conscience, no 
place for moral obligation. Pleasure was the chief object of life. Though 
it is claimed that the ideal of Epicurus was not pleasure of a degrading 
nature, and that he taught a strict morality, yet the system inevitably tend- 
ed to sensuality, and had natural attractions for those who were fond of 
debasing pleasures. It made no provision for a future life, for it knew of no 
other life than this. Its creed may be briefly summed up in this: "Let us 
eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." 

2. The Stoics were founded by Zeno of Citium in the fourth century be- 
fore Christ. Their place of meeting was in the "Painted Porch," or Stoa, of 
Athens, whence they derived their name. They believed in two fundamen- 
tal principles, the active and the passive. The passive was matter, the 
active was God. They were pantheists, denying the independent existence 
of the soul, and affirming that ail souls were emanations of Deity. They 
also taught that God and man were both alike inexorably subject to Fate. 
In opposition to the Epicureans they held that men ought to have no re- 
gard to pleasure, but to act only for the right. They were not agreed in 
their views of a future life. Some believed that all souls were absorbed 
into Deity at death ; others that they maintained their separate existence 
until a general conflagration of the universe took place ; others still, that 
only the good thus maintained a separate existence. 

844.— TRADES LEARNED. 

XVIII, 3. Because he was of the same craft, he abode -with 
them, and wrought: for by their occupation they were tent- 
makers. 

Among the Jews the boys were all compelled to learn trades. It was 
considered disreputable not to be acquainted with some branch of handi- 



448 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. 

craft, a practical knowledge of a trade being regarded as a requisite to per- 
sonal independence. This custom has been found, not only among the 
Jews, but among some other nations. One of the Sultans of Turkey was 
taught to make wooden spoons ! 

845.— EPHESIAN LETTERS. 
XIX, 19. Many of them also which, used, curious arts brought 
their books together, and. burned them before all men. 

Ephesus was the great center of magic in the time of Paul. The " books " 
here mentioned were probably made up of directions for producing magical 
results, and were reckoned of great value to all who practiced sorcery. 
One of the " curious arts " consisted in the use of the t; Ephesian letters," 
celebrated in ancient times. These are supposed to have been copies of 
certain characters which were engraved on the crown, the girdle, and the 
feet of the statue of the goddess Diana. See note on verse 35. They were 
wTitten on strips of parchment, and worn as amulets. The "books " may 
have taught how to use these to the best advantage. Hesychius (cited by 
Burder, Oriental Literature, No. 1429) says: "The Ephesian letters, or 
characters, were formerly six, but certain deceivers added others afterward; 
and their names, according to report, were these: askion, kataskion, lix, 
tetrax, damnameneus, and aision. It is evident that askion means darkness; 
kataskion, light; lix, the earth; tetrax, the year; damnameneus, the sun; 
and aision, truth : these are holy and sacred things." 

§46.— SHRINES OF DIANA. 
XIX, 24. A certain man named Demetrius, a silversmith, 
which made silver shrines for Diana, brought no small gain 
unto the craftsmen. 

These shrines were miniature representations of the most sacred portion 
of the heathen temple; that part of it where the statue of the goddess was 
situated. They were made of wood or precious metal, and were worn as 
charms. A little door on one side concealed the image of the goddess with- 
in. Roberts found a similar practice in India, where shrines of idols are 
often made in the shape of a temple and suspended from the neck of the 
wearer. 

For a description of the temple represented by the shrines mentioned in 
the text, see the next note. 

§47.— THE TEMPLE OF DIANA. 
XIX, 27. That the temple of the great goddess Diana should 
be despised, and her magnificence should be destroyed, 
whom, all Asia and the world worshipeth. 

This was the largest of the Greek temples, and the most magnificent of 
the ancient world. It is said to have been burned and rebuilt no less than 



Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 449 

seven times, the temple referred to in the text being the eighth of the series. 
This and the two which immediately preceded it were built on the same 
foundation, which was laid by Theodorus about B. C. 500. The first temple 
of the three built on this foundation was burned about B. C. 400. The sec- 
ond was burned on the same night that Alexander the Great was born, B. C. 
356. Great efforts and sacrifices were made to replace this by a building 
which should far excel all the others in magnificence, and it was this splen- 
did edifice on which the eyes of the Apostle Paul gazed. It is said to have 
been two hundred and twenty years in building, though some writers claim 
that this period is intended by the ancient historians to include the time 
from the foundation by Theodorus to the completion of the great temple. 
It was four hundred and twenty-five feet long, and two hundred and twenty 
feet wide. In the interior was a chapel containing the image of the goddess. 
See note on verse 35. The roof of this chapel was of cedar. The rest of 
the vast building was open to the sky, and consisted of colonnades, the col- 
umns of which were sixty feet high and seven feet and a half in diameter. 
It is commonly said that there were one hundred and twenty-seven of these 
columns, each the gift of a king, and Pliny is referred to as the authority for 
this statement. There are late commentators, however, who, by punctua- 
tion, give a different translation to the statement of Pliny, making it read: 
" The columns were one hundred and twenty, seven of them the gifts of 
kings. 1 ' Leake suggests the probability of an error in transcribing: "It is 
very possible that the early § opiers of Pliny made the common oversight of 
omitting an unit, writing cxxvii instead of cxxviii." — Tour in Asia Minor, 
p. 347. Either of these interpretations makes the number of columns 
even. Thirty-six of the columns were richly carved, and ornamented with 
precious metals and stones. Some suppose that Paul makes reference to 
this great temple in 1 Cor. iii, 9-17, and in Eph. ii, 19-22. 

818.— THE THEATER AT EPHESUS. 
XIX, 29. They rushed, with one accord, into the theater. 

This was an immense semicircular structure, the largest of which any 
account has come down to us from ancient times. It was open to the sky, 
with ascending seats, tier above tier, and is said to have been capable of 
holding thirty thousand persons. Its ruins are yet to be seen. Among the 
Greeks, (though rarely among the Romans,) theaters were used, not only 
for spectacular entertainments, but also for assemblages for political or 
business purposes. Hence it was perfectly r atural for the excited multi- 
tude to rush into the theater on this occasion. 

It was in a theater that Herod Agrippa I. gave audience to the Tyrian 
deputies, and was smitten with disease and death. See Josephus, Antiqui- 
ties, book xix. chap. 8. § 2. See also Acts xii, 20-23. 



450 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. fActs. 



849.— THE ASIARCH.E. 
XIX, 31. Certain of the chief of Asia, -which were his friends, 
sent unto him, desiring him that he would not adventure him- 
self into the theater. 

The Asiarchce were officers who were chosen to superintend the public 
games which, were held in honor of the gods and of the Roman emperors!. 
Their duties being semi-religious, they are by some authorities called priests, 
and their office is called a priesthood. Every year ten of the most prominent 
citizens of the chief cities of proconsular Asia were chosen to the office of 
Asiarch for the term of one year, though eligible to reappointment. They 
were of necessity men of great wealth, since the games at which they offi- 
ciated were very costly, and the Asiarchce were themselves obliged to meet 
the entire expense. When officiating they were clad in purple and crowned 
with garlands. "Whether the entire number superintended the games, or 
only one was selected from the ten to preside while the others assisted, is a 
point of controversy not yet settled. 

§50.— TOWN-CLERK— DIANA OF EPHESUS. 

XIX, 35. When the town-clerk had appeased the people, he 

said, Ye men of Ephesus, what man is there that knoweth not 

how that the city of the Ephesians is a worshiper of the great 

goddess Diana, and of the image which fell down from Jupiter? 

1. The grammateus, scribe, or "town-clerk," as the word is here rendered, 
seems to have been charged with duties of a higher order than those of the 
ordinary scribes among the Greeks. It is supposed that, under the Roman 
rule in Asia Minor, the work of the scribes was not limited to recording the 
laws and reading them in public. They presided over popular assemblies, 
and sometimes legally assumed the functions of magistrates. The title is 
preserved on ancient coins and marbles, and the scribes were evidently 
regarded as governors of cities or districts. 

2. "While the Diana of the Romans corresponded to the Artemis of the 
Greeks, this Ephesian Diana or Artemis was a totally distinct divinity of 
Asiatic origin. Her worship was found by the Greeks in Ionia when they 
settled there, and to her they gave the name of Artemis. There was in 
many respects a resemblance between the Ephesian Artemis and the Syrian 
Astarte. See note on 1 Kings xi, 5. Her worship extended over a vast 
region, and cities vied with each other for the honor of being called neoJcoron, 
sweeper, or keeper, of the temple; "worshiper" in the text. The original 
Ephesian image was said to have fallen from heaven, as was also asserted of 
images of other deities in other cities. This has given rise to the opinion 
that this and similar images were aerolites, and were worshiped according to 



Acts.] 



BIBLE HANKERS AND CUSTOMS. 



451 



the ancient superstition which gave sanctity and 
divinity to certain stones. See note on Isa. lvii. 6. 
Ancient authorities, however, assert that the Ephe- 
sian Artemis was of wood, some say of ebony, 
others of vine-wood. "Whatever the material, the 
figure was very coarse and rude. The later image 
of the Ephesian goddess was elaborately made, and 
was covered with carefully-wrought symbols and 
mystic figures. See note on verse 19. 

The following is the description given of this 
statue by Mr. Ealkener (Ephesus, pp. 290, '91) : " The 
circle round her head denotes the nimbus of her 
glory, the griffins inside of which express its brill- 
iancy. In her breast are the twelve signs of the 
zodiac, of which, those seen in front are the ram, 
bull, twins, crab, and lion ; they are divided by the 
hours. Her necklace is composed of acorns, the 
primeval food of man. Lions are on her arms to 
denote her power, and her hands are stretched out 
to show that she is ready to receive all who come to 
her. Her body is covered with various beasts and 
monsters, as sirens, sphinxes, and griffins, to show 
she is the source of nature, the mother of all things. i 6 3.-Diana of Ephesus, from 
Her head, hands, and feet are of bronze, while the an Antique Statue in the 
rest of the statue is of alabaster, to denote the ever- Naples Museum. 
varying light and shade of the moon's figure. . . . Like Rhea, she was crowned 
with turrets, to denote her dominion over terrestrial objects." — Fairbairn, 
Imperial Bible Dictionary. 




85 1 .— VOWS— NAZARITES. 

XXI, 23, 24. We have four men which have a vow on them ; 
them take, and purify thyself with them, and be at charges 
■with them, that they may shave their heads. 

]. The custom of making vows to God is very ancient. "We read of it as 
far back as the days of Job. Eliphaz refers to it in Job xxii, 27. Jacob 
practiced it. Gen. xxviii, 20-22; xxxi, 13. We read in later times of the 
vows of Jephthah, (Judges xi, 30, 31 ;) Hannah, (1 Sam. i, 11 ;) and Absalom, 
(2 Sam. xv, 8, 9 ;) though the last-mentioned probably pretended to vow for 
the purpose of furthering his rebellion. Heathens vowed as well as Jews. 
See Jer. xliv, 25 ; Jonah i, 16. 

Tows usually involved free-will offerings to be given to God as a recogni- 
tion of his goodness, either subsequent to the reception of blessings desired, 



452 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. 

or in anticipation of them. There was no law compelling any one to make 
vows, but, when once made, they came within the limit of the law, and 
their fulfillment became obligatory. See Num. xxx, 2; Dent, xxiii, 21, 22; 
Judges xi, 35 ; Prov. xx, 25 ; Eccl. v, 4, 5. 

The offerings to be devoted to the service of God in the fulfillment of vows 
were houses or land; animals for sacrifice; or the person of the one making 
the vow, his child, or his slave. These personal offerings could be redeemed, 
(see Lev. xxvii, 1-7 ;) so also could houses and land. Lev. xxvii, 14-25. 
Animals for sacrifice were not redeemable. Lev. xxvii, 9, 10, 33. 

Besides the texts above mentioned, vows are referred to in Psa. xxii. 25 ; 
1, 14; lvi, 12; lxvi, 13; cxvi, 14, 18; Isa. xix, 21; Nahum i, 15. 

2. The vow specially alluded to in the text is supposed by most commen- 
tators to be the vow of the Nazarite. The origin of this peculiar vow is un- 
known, and even the etymology of the word is disputed, though most authori- 
ties derive it from nazar, to " consecrate," to "separate." The law regulating 
it is found in the sixth chapter of the book of Numbers, where the subject 
is treated, not as a novelt} r , but as a well-established custom. 

The Nazarite vow was a consecration to the Lord. There were a few 
instances in which this consecration was for life. Persons thus set apart 
were called " Nazarites of perpetuity." Samson was one of these. See Judges 
xiii, 4, 5. So was Samuel. See 1 Sam. i, 11. John Baptist is also thought 
to have been a Nazarite for life. See Luke i, 15. 

The Nazarites generally were, however, limited in the duration of the 
obligation imposed by their vow. These were called "Nazarites of days." 
The ordinary time was thirty days, but sometimes it extended to sixty, or 
even to a hundred, days. During the time the obligation lasted the Nazarite 
was to be separate in three particulars: 1. He was not to partake of wine 
or strong drink in any form. 2. He was not to allow his hair to be cut. 
3. He was not to come in contact with a dead body. 

At the close of his term of separation the Nazarite was to perform certain 
ceremonies, which are detailed in Num. vi, 13-21. Among other things, he 
was to cut off his hair and put it into the fire of the peace-offering. After 
the wave-offering was presented he might drink wine. In addition to the 
usual offerings required by the law, it was customary for those who were 
able to give something to help the poorer Nazarites procure their regular 
offerings. Paul is supposed to have complied with this custom, thus " being 
at charges with them," and enabling them to finish the term of their vows by 
shaving their heads. This will explain, not only the text, but also verse 26. 
In this way the apostle was able to show to his sensitive Jewish brethren 
that he did not mean to "forsake Moses." Paul's vow, which is spoken of 
in Acts xviii, 18, is also thought by many commentators to have been a 
Nazarite vow, though some dispute this view. 



Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 453 

Various theories have been devised in explanation of this singular custom 
of the Nazarite. Perhaps none is more satisfactory than that which repre- 
sents it to be the "typical representation of a holy life." Fairbairn says: 
" It sets forth in a striking and beautiful manner the leading features of a life 
devoted to God. It originates in a so'emn resolve of the free-will, and is in 
this respect an interesting emblem of a godly life, which is the spontaneous 
outgoing of a heart renewed by the Spirit of God." — Imperial Bible Dictionary, 
s. v. Nazarite. See also Fairbairx's Typology, vol. ii, p. 346. 

A resemblance to at least one of the practices of the Nazarites may be 
found in the customs of other ancient nations besides the Jews. (The 
authorities are given in Winer, Biblisches Bealworierbuch, s. v. Nasiraer.) 
Among the Egyptians, Syrians, Greeks, Romans, and Arabs, it was customary 
in times of impending peril to consecrate the hair and beard to the gods. 
Morier gives a singular illustration of a similar practice among the modern 
Persians. Speaking of customs concerning young children, he says : "It fre- 
quently happens after the birth of a son that if the parent be in distress, or 
the child be sick, or that there be any other cause of grief, the mother makes 
a vow that no razor shall come upon the child's head for a certain period 
of time, and sometimes for all his life. If the child recovers and the cause 
of grief be removed, and if the vow be but for a time, so that the mother's 
vow be fulfilled, then she shaves h ; s head at the end of the time prescribed, 
makes a small entertainment, collects money and other things from her 
relations and friends, which are sent as Nezers (offerings) to the mosque at 
Kerbelah, and are there consecrated." — Second Journey, etc., p. 108. 

852.— POSITION OF TEACHER AND SCHOLAR. 
XXII, 3. Brought up in this city at the feet of Gamaliel, and 
taught according to the perfect manner of the law of the 
fathers. 

In Jewish schools the master sat on a high chair, the elder pupils on a 
lower bench, and the youngest on the ground. The general custom at pres- 
ent in the East is for the teacher and pupils to sit upon the ground, and, 
according to Maimonides, this was once the ancient practice. The custom 
probably varied at different periods, but in either case the pupils were liter- 
ally " at the feet " of their instructor. This is referred to in Luke x, 39, 
where we are told that Mary " sat at Jesus' feet, and heard his word." 

853.— APPEAL— ROMAN COUNCILORS. 
XXV, 11, 12. I appeal unto Cesar. Then Festus, when he had 
conferred with the council, answered, Hast thou appealed unto 
Cesar ? unto Cesar shalt thou go. 

1. The Roman governors exercised supreme jurisdiction over the prov- 
inces; but all Roman citizens had the inalienable right of appeal. This 



454 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Acts. 

right Paul saw fit to use, and thereby took the case out of the hands of 
Festus and removed it to a higher court. 

2. The assessores, or councilors, were men learned in the law, whose 
business it was to sit in judgment with the governor, and advise with him 
on points of law. Festus turned to them to ascertain whether the appeal of 
Paul was admissible. 

§54.— THE HAND STRETCHED FORTH. 

XXVI, 1. Then Paul stretched, forth the hand, and answered 
for himself. 

This was a customary form of dignified oratory, designed to show the 
earnestness of the speaker. The orator stretched forth the right hand, hav- 
ing the two lowest fingers shut in on the palm of the hand, while the other 
fingers were extended. It is said that Demosthenes often used this gesture. 

This is not to be coufounded with the "beckoning" mentioned in Acts 
xiii, 16. That was simply a motion of the hand for the purpose of gaining 
attention. See also Acts xii, 17. 

855.— THE SKIFF. 

XXVII, 16. We had much work to eome by the boat. 

The skiff, or small boat, which accompanied the ancient sailing vessel 
was not taken on board, as with us, but was usually allowed to follow in the 
wake. In this instance, by reason of the storm, it was thought advisable to 
take it on board, but the task was one of great difficulty. 

§56.—" UNDERGIRDING." 

XXVII, IT. Which when they had taken up, they used helps, 
undergirding the ship. 

Every ship carried large cables, which were used in case of necessity for 
passing around the hull, thus " undergirding " it, and saving it from the 
strain which resulted from the working of the mast in a storm 

§57.— ANCHORS, HOW USED. 
XXVII, 29. They east four anchors out of the stern. 

1. Ancient vessels had not so heavy anchors as ours, and therefore car- 
ried more. 

2. It was customary to anchor ancient ships by the stern, though they 
were sometimes anchored at the bow. The anchors were carried in the skiff 
to a suitable distance from the vessel and there dropped. In modern times 
ships-of-war in action have sometimes been anchored from the stern. Lord 
Nelson pursued this plan at the battle of the Nile, and at the battle of 
Copenhagen. See the account in Alison, History of Eurojie, (Edition, 
Harper,) vol. i, p. 513 ; vol. ii, p. 154. 



Acts.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 4:55 

858.— DOUBLE RUDDERS. 

the* ru^er^ds " 1111 ^^ 111 ^ 861 ^ 3 ™ to "-^ and loosed 

More correctly, the bands of the rudders; the word in the original bein- 
plural. Each ship had two rudders, or paddles, for steering one on 
each quarter. The hinged rudder at the stern is comparatively^ modern 
contrivance. 

859.— SHIPS NAMED. 
XXVIII, 11. A ship of Alexandria, which had wintered in the 
isle, whose sign was Castor and Pollux. 

Ancient ships had the name on each side of the bow, as with us, and 
represented by a sculptured figure. The vessel in which Paul now sailed 
was the ' Castor and Pollux," named after twin deities who were regarded 
as the special patrons of sailors. 



ROMANS. 



860.— CAPITAL PUNISHMENT 

r^f h e° b or; e ^srrr z am! wh ° — — - 

bv^T^ SOm0 C0 T entatOT3 ' th °"gh «'e opinion is controverted 
b, others that there is an allusion here to a horrible mode of punishment 
me„t,oned by ancient writers, by which the criminal condemned to dTh 
was fastened by chams to a dead body and left to die by inches in the 
loathsome companionship of a putrefying corpse. 

861.— ADOPTION. 
c^b^aST™'^ ^ S P'-« °f ^option, whereby we 

Among the Greeks and Romans, when a man had no son he was permitted 
to ado pt one even though not related He tf he a J™. 

h,s slaves as a son. The adopted son took the name of the fatLr and 
was m every respect regarded and treated as a son. Among the Romans 

tZZT, r tS T th ° aCt ° f ad ° Pti0a: ° De a P™te°a r ,angemen 

between the partes, and the other a formal public declaration of the fact 
It ,s thought by some that the former is referred to in this verse, and th latter 
■averse 23, where the apostle speaks of « waiting for the adoption." The 

28 



.; 5 6 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. I*-"* 

servant has been adopted privately, but he is - waiting " for a formal public 
declaration of the fact. Dnvilege of addressing 

JK^^W^^ - * » dowhi.e 
a servant. See also Gal. iv, o, 6. 

862.— THE KISS. 

XVI 16 Salute one another with a holy kiss. 
The kiss was not only nsed among men as a token of friendship, (see note 
nJrl i™)atd»f homage to a snperior, (see note on Psa n. 12.) 

rr ;;Sie b age . r --£^S» *^ 

"Td T Ther"r: r eac r o 9 goes on to proclaim solemnly that they shon.d 
rteonea^ther^ra hoi kiss ; and so the clergy -"£££** 
andlaymen their fellow-laymen, and women one another. -B^GHAM, 

*££fE 5M 5 Cor 4 « i !.«- v, 2 S ; X Pet. v, U. In 
the last passage it is called " a kiss of love. 



I CORINTHIANS. 
863.-SET FORTH LAST. 

unto the world, and to angels, and to men. 

The apostle mayhave had in his mind*, pub* Mj-hJ*. of *e = 
an d gladiators; the forme, • were ,men ^who ^f^ ^ T » hlto others 
ffi e„ who fought with each oth er _Som ** us ^ou P . , ^ ^ 

were Criminals who were compelled ^to con end * amusement t0 tbe 

m en as an expiation o *- -^^Jnc. an exhibition the prisoners 

spectators. " «^^ to 1 fen themselves, but at the close of the ex- 
were given arms wherewuh to (hen an(} soon 



forth feist 



I Corinthians.] BUM MANNERS AND- CUSTOMS. 457 

864 —TEMPERANCE— CHAPLETS. 

we an incorruptible. 

Among the fonr sacred games of the ancient Greeks the Olympic and the 
Isthmtan were the most celebrated, the former taking the precedence. To 
"miliar games the apostle makes many allusions m to wrings. (See 
further note on Heb. xii, 1.) There are two of such in tins text. 
" 1 Every competitor in' these games was obliged to undergo a severe and 
„ ro tracte/trainin & sometimes ^^f^^^L^- 
carefully avoided excesses of every kind. A passage irom up 
tifuily illustrates this text that it is cited by m ^™^% J ° '' a 
von be a victor in the Olympic games? so m good truth would I fo :* . 
riorions thing ; but pray consider what must go before, and what may fol 
fow d o Proceed to the attempt. Ton must then live by rule, ea what 
Z be disagreeable, refrain from delicacies ; you must obhge yourse f to con 
I nt exerts at the appointed honr, in heat and cold; yon must absta n 
from wine and cold liqnors; in a word, you mnst be as submrssxve to all 
toe directions of your master as to those of a P hysician."-^cW.o», 

^Tlms^nl says in the text: "Every man that striveth for the mastery is 

'TThevmtor Awarded with a crown or ehsplet of leaves. TheOlym- 
pic crown was made of the leaves of the wild olive, the Isthmian was made 
o ptae or ivy. Prom the earliest periods of history ohaplets of leaves were 
bestowed upon heroes who had conquered on the field of battle Thns the 
Psalmist says of the trinmphant Messiah : "Upon himself shall h.s crown 
flounsh ' Psa. cxxxii, 18. The idea of a crown flwishw « ™T «1™ 
then spoken of a leafy cbaplet ; though some commentators render the 
word line. This is the sort of crown to which Paul refers m the tex 
Is ■• corruptible." The crown of thorns which was placed on the Savour s 
head w s a mockery of these wreaths of triumph, as well as of the golden 
crownTof kings. See Matt, xxvii, 29 ; Mark xv, 17 ; John x,x, 2, 5. 

The leafy crown given to the victor in these ancient games doubtless 
furnishes the metaphor which is used in 2 Tim. ii, 5 ; .v, 8 ; James ., 12 , 
1 Pet. v, 4; Rev. ii, 10; iii, 11. 

865.— BOXING. 
IX 26. So fight I, not as one that beateth the air. 
The allusion here is to boxing. It was customary for the boxers whde 
training to strike out at an imaginary adversary merely for exero.se. This 
™°» beating the air." The text may refer to this, or to the efforts whmh, 



458 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [I Corinthians, 

when the real contest took place, each made to avoid the blows of Ins 

sss :ee£5 shonM fau upon the air - T,ie — 1:: 

The "beating " was done by means of leather bands which were fastened 

loaTd w ^ T, ^ WrIStS ' 9nd Were S ° metiffieS Studded «* -i and 
loaded with lead or ,ron. This made the blow heavy, and frequently dan 
gorons. Fighting in this way was "resisting unto blood • " tm Ts tTe 
ground of the image in Heb. xii, 4. ' 

Tv m T 866.-THE HERALD. 

Such nJT* <ipreaC ! ied " We W reference *> the office of a herald. 
Such an office employed, not only by kings to announce their decrees, 

^ x/Vh T? t0 K PrcClaim thdr «>»*&(*» Mai. hi, 1, and note 
on la. x , 3,) but also by those who had charge of the ancient games to 
winch reference has been made in the preceding verses. The herald pro- 
ceed at the opening of the games the name and country of each candidate, 
and the rules ot the contest. Most commentators suppose the apostle here 
to represent lumself as such a herald. He has announced the opening of 
he contest and the laws which regulate it; he is nowto be careful lest after 
a 1 he lumself should not succeed, for, unlike the herald in the games he is 
also a competitor. Bloomfield, however, thinks that there is here ai best 
only an « under-allusion » to the office of herald. See his note ft. idea. 

§67.— GLASS. 

face'to'faer "" ™ ^ ^^ * ^ SS > *^V > but then 

Critic. -differ as to the meaning of the word rendered "glass" in this 
verse. Many suppose it means a metallic mirror, as it evidently does in 
James i,23. (For an account of ancient mirrors, see note on Exod. xxxviii 8) 
Such a mirror, covered with a thin vail, as was often done to protect from 
dust and dampness, would present a dim, shadowy reflection, causing the 
beholder to see « darkly" or more literally, enigmatically. Others think that 
the "glass" in this text was the lapis specula vis, a kind of talc of which the 
ancients sometimes made their windows Through this the indistinct out- 
lines of an object could be seen, but the beholder was left to guess what the 
object might be. He was looking at an enigma ; he saw " darkly " 

We have thus a beautiful illustration of the difference in clearness of 
vision between the present life and the future. The vail will be taken from 
the mirror, so that the reflection will be clear; or, the semi-transparent win- 
dow will be removed, so that nothing shall obstruct the si-ht 



I Corinthians.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



459 



86§.— MODE OF RECKONING TIME 

Lev. zxni, 32,) though this reckoning was sometimes varied. In popular 
language a part of a day was reckoned for the whole. The Saviour was 
toned at the close of the day, just before the Sabbath began. He r Tailed 
m the tomb during the whole of the Sabbath, which ended the fo. ow t g 
"7 Another ^ tto » *B». »d when the night of this day pass d 
and H S mornmg came he rose from the dead. Though but a short rime of 
the first day was spent in the grave, it is still reckoned according to Jewish 

:::r d :;r^ dayofhis ^ «•«-*«««. -« t 



§69.— ENEMIES UNDER THE FEET 
h^e'i F ° r he mUSt relgn ' ^ hG hath ^ a11 — ies under 

There is a similar passage in Joshua x, 24, on which see the note. The 
monuments of ancient Egypt, As- 
syria, and Persia give numerous illus- 
trations of the custom of conquerors 
trampling on the vanquished. In 
the cave at Beit el TValley in Nubia 
is a hieroglyphic description of 
Rameses II. trampling on his ene- 
mies. It reads: "Kol, the strange 
land, is beneath thy sandals." At 
the foot of a wooden mummy case in 
the British Museum are painted the 
s<*les of two shoes, and on each is 
the figure of a man with his arms 
and hands tied behind him, and his 
feet tied at the ankles. In this help- 
less state he is supposed to be tram- 
pled on by the wearer of the shoes. 
It was a very expressive illustration 
of mingled triumph and contempt 

These customs strikingly UlnMrAe 164.-Ex EMra8 ThahpT^^ 




> 



460 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [ I Corinthians. 

the text, and numerous parallel passages. See Psa. viii, 6; ex, 1 ; cxix, U8; 
T8a.xiv.19; xxv,10: xxviii,3,18; Ixiii, 6 ; Lam. i, 15; in, 34; Dan vm,13; 
Micah vii, 10; Mai. iv, 3: Luke xxi, 24; Rom. xvi, 20; Heb. x, 29. 



II CORINTHIANS. 

870.— ROMAN MILITARY TRIUMPHS. 
II 14 Now thanks be unto God, which always eauseth us to 
triumph in Christ, and maketh manifest the savor of his 
knowledge by us in every place. 

A Roman military triumphal procession was one of the grandest spectacles 
of ancient times, 'it was granted to a conqueror only when certain con- 
ditions had been fully complied with. Among these it was required that he 
victory be complete and decisive; that it should be over a foreign foe; ha 
at least five thousand of the enemy should be slain in a single battle; that 
the conquest should extend the territory of the state, and put an end to the 
war When the senate decided that all the required conditions had been 
met' a day was appointed, and every necessary arrangement was made for a 
splendid pageant. When the day arrived the people crowded the streets, 
and filled everv place from which a good view of the procession con d be 
obtained The' temples were all open and decorated with flowers, while in- 
cense smoked from every altar. Fragrant odors from burning £»"» 
profusely scattered through the temples and along the streets, oading the 
air with their perfume. In the procession were the senate and ehief citizens 
of the state, who thus by their presence honored the conqueror The rich- 
est spoils of war, such as gold, silver, weapons of every description stand- 
ards rare and costly works of art, and everything that was deemed most 
valuable by either conqueror or vanquished, were carried m open view of 
the crowded city. The prisoners of war were also compelled to march in 
Passion. The general, in whose honor the triumph was ecreed, rode 
n a chariot which was of peculiar form and drawn by four horse His 
robe was embroidered with gold, and his tunic with flowers. In us nght 
hand was a laurel bough, and in his left a scepter; while on Ins brow 
he ie was a wreath of Delphic laurel. Amid the shouts of the soldiers ana 
tt applause of the populace the conqueror was carried through the streets 
to tlie temple of Jupiter, where sacrifices were offered, after which the e 
was a Public feast in the temple. (For a more detailed account, see Smxth s 
nirtionarv of Antiquities, s. v. Triumphus.) 

ToTe Splendors of such a scene the apostle doubtless alludes m th» 
text and also in Col. ii, 15: " And having spoiled ptineipaht.es and powers, 



n Corinthian,] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 461 

he made a show of them openly, triumphing over them in it." Here Christ 

of wa In the text at the head of this note it is also Christ who ts the eon- 
on" r Pan being merely an instrument used by him for *-«»£"*■ 
ment of his work Thus, wherever he preaehed Christ trmmphed ; and as 
ntteZan triumph, odors were profusely seattered around, so the knowl- 
a of C^t wa, everywhere proclaimed by the apostles: ™h man 
ifest the savor of his knowledge by us in «^.^:^^Z 
triumph the fragranee which filled the air was mhaled ahke by toe c^ -s 
of war doomed to death, and by the people who ^. mM ™ v Jf£ !^ 
were saved from a similar fate. Thus toe Gospel is preached to all, bu 
: to d iffe en result,: to the believer, salvation ; to him who reject, e ern 
lath So Paul say, in toe fifteenth and sixteenth verses: For we are 
It God a sweet savor of Christ, in toem that are saved, ^»* 
perish: To toe one we are the savor of death unto death; and to the other 
the savor of life unto life." 

871 _WALL-WINDOW— BASKET. 
XI, 33. Through a window in a basket was I let down by 
tho wall. See also Acts ix, 25. 

, The wall of a house is sometime, also a portion of toe city wall and 
thus w Mows may be placed in the wall through which access may b had 
to he region outside of the city. The floor of an upper story ,omet me, 
lend, beyond the wall, giving an opportunity for a bey *« 
outside the wall. Either of these methods would afford a chance to e.eape 
from the Z without pas,ing through toe gate,. Thus toe sp.es escaped 
from Jericho See Josh ii, 15. David ,eems to have escaped ,n a smnlar 

round Iflow baskets which are still u,ed in Damascu, and ,n other parts 
7toe East for variou, purpce, When Prof. Hackett was ,n ^D—s 
he saw a couple of men come to the top of toe wall with a basket full of 
IS, wlichtoey emptied over toe wall. A friend said to ^m: Suoh^ 
basket the people use here for almost every sort of thmg. If they are m 
!"! a weh and wish to send a man down into it, they put l»m mto such a 
basket and that thee who aided Paul', e,cape ,honld have used a basket 
for tl 'purpose was entirely natural, according to the present cus torn, of 
he country Judging from what is done now, it is toe only sort of veh cle 
of whicl men would be apt to think under such circumstance,."-^^ 
tions of Scripture, p. 69. 



^ BIBLE MAX* ERS AND 0USTOm [GaiaUans 

GALATIANS. 

Ill 24 Th , 8r2 — ™E PEDAGOGUE. 

T held W£>S ° Ur -*"*— - «— . us unto Christ 

they were si, or seve„~ f te t „t° "" B,Mtor '» so " s «™ *• time 
>° guard them from evil both nhX i P ^ " HiS dn ^ was rat1 '" 
"ruction, to cultivate t efr mind ' r t "^ ' than *° <™™™iea,e in- 

whl. them to and from Z ^or I a ^P>«"ment3. He went 

out of doors on all occasion's h! ™. ^mnMum; he accompanied then, 
and for their avoidance of ba d comn ^ T"* ** ** pereoaai 8aft '7. 

y, „ . . S?3.-THE MARK. 

U IT. bear in my body ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ 

shewed to whom J^TS^^T^ ^ ^ ^ which 
" thorn in the flesh." which was , ner™ , , " "" * U " Si ° n here t0 his 
and master. * " P er P et " al mark put upon him by | lis l ord 

See also notes on Lev xi't •)«. To„ ■■ ,„ 

■ x ' x < 28 > Iso - *hx, 16; Ezek. ix, 4. 



EPHESIANS. 



VI 15 v , 874 '- MI LITARY SANDALS. 
p >I,l, Vour f ee tshod with ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 

nails in order to J e a sure'f " ^ tTch^ 7 *??" ** hot- 
Gospel as a sure footing, can stand fi™, " S ° Wier ' llavi °? the 

ual foes. g ' Stand flrml ? a «amst the attacks of his spirit- 

VI 16 Th h 8r5 -- FIER Y DARTS. 
0-neh all ^ £* ZJS^^^t "" "** "» ^ to 

o^2T: S* rt°w? ere iS **— ~ ^e nolo 
fare that were literally "flert^ Thcv' T^™ 8 " Sed in ™™* ™- 



Ephesians.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 463 

from slack bows. Whatever the arrows struck, the flames consumed. Water 
served to increase their violence ; they could only be extinguished by being 
covered with earth. Large shields were used by the soldiers against whom 
these " fiery darts " were thrown, and thus their persons were protected. 



PHILIPPIANS. 

§76.— REGISTER OF CITIZENS' NAMES. 

IV, 3. With other my fellow-laborers, whose names are in the 
book of life. 

It was customary to have registers of citizenship, in which were entered 
the names of citizens, both natural and adopted. Heaven is represented as 
a city, and its inhabitants are registered. Some, who have not yet reached 
the heavenly city, are regarded as citizens on their way home. Their names 
are registered with the others. Such were the « fellow-laborers " to whom 
Paul refers in the text. See also Isa. iv, 3 ; Dan. xii, 1 ; Luke x, 20 ; Rev. 
xiii, 8; xvii, 8; xx, 15; xxi, 27. When one was deprived of citizenship 
his name was erased from the roll of citizens. Reference may be found to 
this in Exod. xxxii, 32 ; Isa. lxix, 28; and Rev. iii, 5. 



II TIMOTHY. 



877.— ROMAN MILITARY DISCIPLINE. 
II, 3. Thou therefore endure hardness, as a good soldier of 
Jesus Christ. 

The discipline of the Roman army was very severe. Every soldier was 
compelled to ''endure hardness." The weapons were heavy, and in addi- 
tion to them the ordinary foot soldier was compelled to carry a saw, a basket, 
a pick-ax, an ax, a thong of leather, and a hook, together with three days' 
rations. He was treated more like a beast of burden than a man. See 
Josephus, Wars of the Jews, book iii, chap. v. 

§78.— SINGLENESS OF AIM. 
II, 4. No man that warreth entangleth himself with the affairs 
of this life ; that he may please him who hath chosen him to 
be a soldier. 

The Eoman soldier was expected to keep one thing in view, and only one : 
the service of his commander. He was not allowed to marry, nor could he 



464 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [II Timothy. 

engage in agriculture, trade, or manufactures. He was a soldier, and could 
not be any thing else. 

The figure is very suggestive of the singleness of aim which characterizes 
the true minister of Jesus Christ. He is not allowed to engage in any em- 
ployment which will, by its entanglements, interfere with his usefulness. 
This is wiiat Paul, in die text, designs to intimate to Timothy. 

879.— OBLIGATIONS OF LAW. 
II, 5. And. if a man also strive for masteries, yet is he not 
crowned, except he strive lawfully. 

No man could hope to obtain the reward in the ancient games of running, 
leaping, boxing, or wrestling, unless he complied with the regulations which 
were prescribed ; first, in the necessary previous training, (see note on 
1 Cor. ix, 25,) and then in the conduct of the games. He must " strive law- 
fully." Thus the apostle says in 1 Cor. ix, 24: " So run, that ye may ob- 
tain." That is, keep all the rules if you wish to succeed. It is thought by 
some that Paul also refers to these rules of the games when he says, in 
1 Cor. ix, 26: "I therefore so run, not as uncertainly." That is, I have a 
knowledge of all the rules which regulate the race, and I know what I am 
engaged in. 

§80.— MURAL INSCRIPTIONS. 

II, 19. Nevertheless the foundation of God standeth sure, hav- 
ing this seal, The Lord knoweth them that are his. And, Let 
every one that nameth the name of Christ depart from in- 
iquity. 

The word "seal" is here used in the sense of inscription. Ancient seals 
frequently had inscriptions on them; though the allusion here is to inscrip- 
tions that were placed on buildings. Besides writing on doors, (see note 
on Deut. vi, 9,) it was customary to inscribe on some of the foundation- 
stones of large buildings words indicating the purpose for which the build- 
ing was erected, or containing some striking apothegm. Allusion to this 
custom is also made in Rev. xxi, 14: "The wall of the city had twelve 
foundations, and in them the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb." 

881.— THE CLOAK. 
IV, 13. The cloak that I left at Troas with Carpus, when thou 
eomest, bring with thee. 

The <pe/i6vr/c was a thick upper garment corresponding to the Roman 
panula, and was used in traveling instead of the toga as a protection 
against the weather. It was sometimes worn by the women as well as by 
the men. It was usually made of wool, though occasionally of leather, and 
was a long sleeveless garment, made like a sack, with an opening for the head. 



Hebrews.) BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 465 

HEBREWS. 

882 —THE GOLDEN CENSER. 
IX. 8 4 After the second veil, the tabernacle which is celled 
theholiest of all; which hed the golden censer. 

Commentators are perplexed as to the meaning of IH|W »■*£ 
« censer " in this text. Some snppose the golden altar of racense is meant , 
b, H is duficuit to reconcile this opinion with the fact that this a tar was 
no to the Most Holv Place. Others refer it to the censer wtneh the high- 
ie t usedon the Great Day of Atonement. This utensil, however .s not 
Lid to have been made of gold. On the contrary, Exod. xxvn, 3, 19, md. 
!L Twas made of brass. Reference seems to be made to a specia. 

:: r f v^£ — «*"* in ■* Most ?&%£." the 

Mosaic Tabernacle. It is not alluded to in any other part of the Bible. 

Meyer in his BiUldeulun gm , has an essay discnssing this subject in 
,S advances the opinion that there were two kinds of uteense used in 
he Tabernacle; the first described in Exod. xxx, 7, 8, and the second in 
Exolxxx 34136. "The first or holy incense was used daily for bummg 
on ne cSh but the other, or most holy incense, tl ,at -"* w^afiowed 
was used cold, like our smelling-salts, and was set in the Most Holy P ace 
tefore the Ark of the Covenant, diffusing a perpetual Iragrance. In order 
, t "he mixture might accomplish the end designed it was P«^and 
possibly some other chemical process was added, (verse 35.) That it m. ht 
'em in before the Testimony, the place where it ™^«^ ££«££> 
I was proper that there should be a vessel, a B— », » open perfume 
disTi or cup; this vessel was undoubtedly of gold, as were the other vessels 
of the Most Holy ?lzce."-Bibddeutmgen pp. 7, 8. n censer » 

Meyer thinks be has thus discovered the meaning of the word censer 
in the text. His explanation is certainly plausible, and not liable to the dif 
acuities which beset the others. 

883— SAWING ASUNDER. 

XI 37— They were sawn asunder. 

This terrible mode of punishment is said to have originated either with the 
Pectus or tie Chaldeans, and was occasionally practiced by other ano.ent 
Persians or ^ me „tioned in 2 Sam. xu, 31, and 

TZon x 3, tZgh commentators are by no means agreed on this pomt. 
TherlTs a ve,T old tradition that Isaiah suffered death by this mean, The 
Sa our i- IhoLht to refer to it in Matt, xxiv, 51, and Luke xu, 46. Dr. Shaw 
»r"et he Western Moors practiced this barbarous punishment during 



466 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



[Hebrews. 



his travels among them. "They prepare two boards of a proper length and 

ex co ^ y ^ ti6d ? e CrIminal betW * fc them > ^/proceed" to the 
execution by begmnmg at the head."— Travels, p. 254. 

884.— THE RACE. 
XII, 1. Wherefore, seeing we also are compassed ahmit ^wv, 
so great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside^ry weight Ind 
the sin which doth so easily beset us, and let us run wSh pa- 
tience the race that is set before us. P 

Running was one of the most popular of the Olympic games. The place 
prepared for the race was called the stadium because of its length which 
was a stadium, or six hundred Greek feet. This was equal to six hundred 
and twenty-five Roman feet, or six hundred and six and three quarters feet 
English. See note on John xi, 18. The word appears in the original of 
2 Cor. ix, 24, where it is translated "race" in our version. The stadium 
was an oblong area, with a straight wall across one end, where were 
the entrances, the other end being rounded and entirely closed. Tiers of 
seats were on either side for the spectators or "witnesses." The startino, 
place was at the entrance end, and was marked by a square pillar At the 
opposite end was the goal, where sat the judge holding in his hand the prize 
The eyes of the competitors were fixed on him: "Looking unto Jesus" 
Heb. xn, 2. The goal, as well as the starting-place, was marked by a square 
pillar, and a third was placed midway between the two. The goal is the 




165. — Ancient Foot-eaoe. 



I' mark" referred to in Phil, iii, 14. The competitors, through severe train- 
ing, had no superfluous flesh, and all unnecessary clothing was put off Flesh 
and clothing alike were laid aside as a "weight " which might hinder in the 
race. The distances run were various. The most common was the space 
between the starting-point and the goal. Sometimes this was doubled, the 
race lermina'ing where it began. Sometimes the terms of the race required 



Hebrews.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 467 

a still longer distance to be run. Seven, twelve, twenty, and even twent} r - 
four times the length of the stadium were occasionally run. This required 
severe effort, and was a great tax on the strength. The runners might well 
be exhorted to "run with patience." 

There are other passages where allusions are made to the game of running. 
In 1 Tim. vi, 12, Paul says, as rendered in our version, "Fight the good fight 
of faith;" and in 2 Tim. iv, 7, "I have fought a good fight." Some com- 
menta'ors understand that, in both these passages, running rather than fight- 
ing is designed by the original terms. The idea is one of contest for superiority. 
The kind of contest seems to be indicated in 2 Tim. iv, 7, where Paul says, 
'•I have finished my course;" that is, "My race is run." The "course " is 
also mentioned in Acts xx, 24, and 2 Thess. iii, 1. Phil, iii, 13, 14, also refers 
to the race: "Brethren, I count not myself to have apprehended: but thus 
one thing I do, forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching forth 
unto those things which are before, I press toward the mark for the prize of 
the high calling of God in Christ Jesus." Here the course is not yet finished; 
he has not yet "apprehended" or seized the prize. Not looking behind, he 
reaches forth, just as the runners inclined their bodies forward the better to 
get over the ground. He presses toward the mark or goal, just as they 
eagerly put forth their utmost endeavor to get the prize. He is in earnest, 
and determined to succeed. 



JAMES. 



§85.— TRAVELING MERCHANTS. 

IV, 18. Go to now, ye that say, To-day op to-morrow we will 
go into such a city, and. continue there a year, and buy and sell, 
and get gain. 

It is not usual among us for merchants to get rich by going from one city 
to another. A steady pursuit of trade in one place is deemed essential to 
success. In the East, however, it is different. There the merchants are 
itinerant. Professor Hackett says: "Many of those who display their 
goods in the Eastern bazars are traveling merchants. They come from 
other cities, and after having disposed of their stock in trade, either for money 
or other commodities, proceed to another city, where they set up in business 
again. They supply themselves in every instance with the merchandise best 
suited to a particular market, and thus, after repeated peregrinations, if suc- 
cessful in their adventures, they acquire a competence and return home to 
enjoy the fruits of it. The process, therefore, agrees precisely with the 



468 BIBLE MANKKES AND CUSTOMS. ^mes. 



sort. See note on Gen. xxxvii, 25. 



I PETER. 

gSC— ADORNMENTS OF THE HEAD. 

• ~ lot it not be that outward adorning 

j&pz£^'>?£&> «■"**•• or of — on of 

"TlTUe Oriental ladies are exceedingly fond of golden ornaments and of 
costly rav See notes on Gen. «W, 22, 53 ; and also on s, m, 16, 18. 20, 
V- Z 24 where a variety of these adornments are described. 

1 c ° r - * i6 « ^r^^ " ~ £J » »^ braided - 

are used. See note on Ma ,«. ^, ,. ^ ^ head o{ 

Lady Montague counted a hundred and te ^ ^ ^ 

sometimes twisting it ^JJ^££i52 Tb. modern heuea, 
temples, by the aul of gum. which ^J * » e devices-fignres of 

they wrought it mto a varMy of ^^» d temple9 md conqu ered 

coronets, harps, wreathe, diadems, em »m »' p * 

ci.ies. being formed by the ^^^^gXn the bachf and 
iug it into an incredtble numbe of t ^ *™ »„ a9 t0 rea ch to the 

which, when necessary, were lengthened bynbh ^^ rf 

ground, and were kept at full stretch by tl«^ some 

pearls and ^.«™^-^^S £££ - «««) - 

Syrian coins m Ins possess^ H tmann ( ^^ ^ ^ 

given tins descnption of the stjle ot d exhibit s0 close a 

ancient busts and portrarts winch have been ^disco ^ 

resemblance to those of Eastern ^"^^X,^ the pride 
the same elaborate and gorge, us d,spo,n of the. ha r ^ 
of Oriental females in every age. -Km.) s 0/ 7 



I Peter.] 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



469 



Among the interesting specimens of antique pottery discovered by Mr. 
Barker in Cilicia in 1845 are two terra cotta heads of women with the hair 
plaited and dressed as 
shown in these engrav- 
ings. See Barker's Lares 
and Penates, pp. 1 58, 1 68. 
In the valuable antiqui- 
ties from the island of 
Cyprus in the Cesnola 
collection (Metropolitan 
Museum of Art. New 
York) there is a stone 
head which bears a close 
resemblance to one of 
these terra cotta heads 167 
from Cilicia. See engrav- 
ead Dress of Roman ing No. 167. The Apostle Paul also makes 
Empress. reference to braiding the hair in 1 Tim. ii, 9. 





UU 



-Plaited Hair of 
Roman Ladies. 



887.— THE CHIEF SHEPHERD. 
V, 4. When the chief Shepherd shall appear, ye shall receive 
a crown of glory that fadeth not away, 

In Heb. xiii, 20, Jesus is called "that great Shepherd of the sheep." This 
corresponds to the ''chief Shepherd " in the text. Yv'here the flocks were 
numerous and a lar^e number of shepherds were necessary, one was placed 
in charge of all the others. This was true of the herdmen also. Pharaoh 
told Joseph to take ihe most active of his kinsmen and make them " rulers " 
over his cattle. Gen. xlvii, 6. Doeg was the "chiefest of the herdmen" of 
Saul. 1 Sara, xxi, 7. 

Burder gives an interesting quotation from the Gentlemen's Magazine for 
May, 1764. wherein there is a description of the sheep-walks of Spain: 
'"Ten thousand compose a flock, which is divided into ten tribes. One man 
has the conduct of all. He must be the owner of four or five hundred 
sheep, strong, active, vigi'ant, intelligent in pasture, in the weather, and in 
the diseases of sheep. He has absolute dominion over fifty shepherds and 
fifty dogs, five of each to a tribe. He chooses them, chastises them or dis- 
charges them at will. He is the propositus, or the chief shepherd, of the 
whole flock." — Oriental Customs, No. 1310. 

Thus we have an illustration of the text. Christian ministers are pastors 
or shepherds ; but there is one over them all. Jesus is the " chief Shepherd." 
He superintends them, cares for them, assigns them their several positions, 
and rewards or punishes them. 



470 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [m John 



III JOHN. 
888.— INK— PENS, 
pen wrS unT^ef^ t0 Wri ^ bUt l WU1 ™ *"* ** - d 

xxxvifis " deSCr, ' Pti0n ° f thG ink USed in the Ea *t, «ee note on Jer. 

.,63. The other was a reed pointed in the same manner as the quill pe, s 
of modern tunes, though not usually slit. This was used with the ink o 
unting on parchment, or on papyrus. 



JUDE. 

889.— LOVE-FEASTS. 
12 These are spots in your feasts of charity, when thev r««* 
wxth you, feeding themselves without fear. Y aSt 

The agapa or love-feasts, here called -feasts of charity," were feasts 
winch were celebrated in connection with the sacrament of L Lord's Sup- 
pei whether before or after is a disputed question. Possibly the precedence 
varied at different periods of Church history. Bingham giJth is "account of 
it from Chrysostorn: "The first Christians had all things in common, a, we 
read in he Acts of the Apostles; and when that ceased, as it did in tie 
apostles time, this came in its room, as an efflux or imitation of it For 
though the rich did not make all their substance common, yet, upon certain 
days appointed they made a common table; and when their service was 
ended, and they had all communicated in the holy mysteries, they all met at 
a common feast: the rich bringing provisions, and the poor and those who 
had nothing being invited, they all feasted in common together " 

The same authority also quotes from Tertullian, who represents the 
order of service of the agapa. « Our supper, which you accuse of luxury 
shows us reason in its very nam e-for it is called ayd^ which signifies 
love among the Greeks. Whatever charge we are at, it is gain to be at ex 
pense upon the account of piety. For we therewith relieve and refresh the 
poor. There is nothing vile or immodest committed in it. For we do not 
sit down before we have first offered up prayer to God; we eat only to sat- 
isfy hunger, and drink only so much as becomes modest persons We fill 
ourselves in such manner as that we remember still that we are to worship 



Jude.] BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 471 

God by night. We discourse as in the presence of God, knowiDg that he 
hears us. Then, after water to wash our hands, and lights brought in, every- 
one is moved to sing some hymn to God, either out of Scripture, or, as he is 
able, of his own composing ; and by this we judge whether he has observed 
the rules of temperance in drinking. Prayer again concludes our feast; 
and thence we depart, not to fight and quarrel, not to run about and abuse 
all we meet, not to give ourselves up to lascivious pastime ; but to pursue 
the same care of modesty and chastity, as men that have fed at a supper of 
philosophy and discipline, rather than a corporeal feast." See Bingham's 
Antiquities of the Christian Church, book xv, chap. 1, §§ 6-9. 

Most commentators suppose an allusion in 1 Cor. xi, 21, to the feasts of 
love, which were used in connection with the eucharist. Dr. Lightfoot, 
however, while conceding Jliat there were such feasts,, denies that they are 
the agopce mentioned by Paul and by Jude. He supposes that both Paul 
and Jude refer to entertainments which were provided for traveling brethren 
at the cost of the Church, in imitation of the custom of the Jews in their 
synagogues. His entire comment is curious and interesting. See his Works, 
(Edition, Pitman,) vol. xii, p. 522. 



REVELATION. 



890.— THE CHGENIX. 

VI, 6. A measure of wheat for a penny, and three measures 
of barley for a penny. 

The chcenix , "measure," was an Attic dry measure, and was nearly 
equivalent to one quart English. Its measurement was the usual daily 
allowance for a soldier or a slave. 

891.— PALM-BRANCHES. 

VII, 9. Clothed with white robes, and palms in their hands. 

Palm-branches were used on occasions of festivity. See Lev. xxiii, 40 ; 
Neb., viii, 15. They were regarded as tokens of joy and of triumph. Kings 
and conquerors were welcomed by having palm-branches strewn before 
them, and waved in the air, with shouts and acclamations of joy. Thus 
they were waved before the Messiah on the occasion of his entry into Jeru- 
salem. See John xii, 13. Conquerors in the Grecian games returned to 
their homes triumphantly waving palm-branches in their hands. Thus in 
the New Jerusalem John sees the triumphant followers of the Messiah with 
<; palms in their hands." 

2D 



472 BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. [Revelation. 



§92.— TEMPLE-WATCHMEN. 
XVI, 15. Behold, I come as a thief. Blessed is he that wateh- 
eth, and keepeth his garments, lest he walk naked, and they 
see his shame. 

Lightfoot supposes that there is a reference here to the duties of a certain 
officer of the temple, called " The Ruler of the Mountain of the House." 
He went about the temple at every watch with lighted torches, to see 
whether or not the guards were at their posts. If he found one of them 
sleeping " he struck him with a stick ; and it was warrantable for him to 
burn the garments of such an one. And when it was said by others, What 
is that noise in the court ? the answer was made, It is the noise of a Levite 
under correction, and whose garments are burning, for that he slept upon 
the watch. R. Eliezer Ben Jacob said, They once found my mother's son 
asleep, and they burnt his clothes." — Hebrew and Talmudical Exercitations 
on Luke xxii, 4. 

893.— MANY CROWNS. 
XIX, 12. His eyes were as a flame of fire, and on his head 
were many crowns. 

Monarchs who claimed authority over more than one country wore more 
than one crown. The kings of Egypt were crowned with the pshent, or 
united crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. When Ptolemy Philometer 
entered Antioch as a conqueror he wore a triple crown, two for Egypt, and 
the third for Asia. 

John saw him who was " King of kings and Lord of lords," and " on 
his head were many crowns." Thus, in a beautiful figure, the universal 
dominion of our blessed Lord is set forth. 



INDEXES 



[The figures on the right hand refer to the numbers of the notes.] 
I. ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



I. KELIGIOUS CUSTOMS. 



1. Sacred Places. 

1 Jewish tabernacle, 141. 

Altar of burnt-offering, 145. 
Altar of incense, 144. 
Ark of covenant, 142. 
Brazen laver, 146. 
Golden candlestick, 143. 
Golcten censer, 882. 
Table of show-bread, 143. 

2. Temples : — 

First temple — Solomon's, 295. 
Second temple — Zerubbabel's, 

375. 
Third temple— Herod's. 704. 

Doves sold in it, 688.' 

Gifts to it, 786. 

Pinnacle, 635. 

Solomon's porch. 721. 

Vail, 733. 

3. The synagogue, 636, 762. 

2. Sacred Persons. 

1. Chief priests, 717. 

2. Dress of priests, 148. 

3. Levites, 178. 

4. Levitical captains, 787 

5. Minister of the synagogue, 757. 

6. Priestly investiture, 182. 

7. Prophet's mantle, 182. 

8. Ruler of the synagogue, 834. 

9. The "Consolation," 752. 
10. "Wives of priests, 748. 



3. Sacred Offerings. 



Burnt-offering, 151. 
Drink-offering, 169. 
Hands laid ou victim, 160. 
Meat-offering, 152. 
Peace-offering, 156. 
Sacrifice of the red heifer, 181. 

7. Sin-offering, 153. 

8. Time of evening sacrifice, 311. 

9. Trespass-offering, 154. 

10. Use of hyssop, 437. 

11. Use of salt, 150. 

12. Wood-offering, 385. 

4. Sacred Seasons. 

1. Agapae, 889. 

2. Feast of dedication, 805. 

3. Peast of harvest or pentecost, 131. 

4. Peast of tabernacles, 131,798. 

5. Feast of trumpets, 170. 

6. Great day of atonement, 161. 

7. New moon and sabbath, 335. 

8. Passover, 130, 714, 715, 716. 

9. Preparation for the festivals, 129. 

10. Sabbatical year, 171. 

11. Visitors during festivals, 132. 

12. Year of jubilee, 172. 

5. Various Ceremonies connected 
with Worship. 

1. Clothes washed before worship, 
126. 



474 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



2. " Cutting the covenant," 551. 

3. Prayer : — 

By the river side, 838. 
Long prayers, 700. 
On the house top, 829. 
Posture, 300, 433, 568, 595, 741. 
Repetitions, 645. 
Stated times, 595. 

4. Priestly benediction, 790. 

5. Reading the Scriptures in the syn- 

agogue, 755, 756, 834. 

6. Singing the "Hallel," 716. 

7. The "holy kiss," 862. 

8. Use of "Amen," 364. 

9. Use of phylacteries, 697. 

6. Idolatry. 

1. Ceremonies : — 

Calf-worship, 138, 448. 

Cuttings in the flesh, 310. 

Pace turned toward the east, 568. 

Feasts, 535, 602. 

Gods called on in trouble, 610. 

Human sacrifices, 330. 

Idols carried on shoulders, 519. 

Sacrifices of the dead, 449. 

Tidings carried to idols, 362. 

Use of garlands, 837. 

2. Deities : — 

Adrammelech, 351. 

Anamelech, 351. 

Ashima, 351. 

Ashtoreth, 304. 

Baal, 184. 

Baal-berith, 232. 

Baalim, 222. 

Baal-peor, 185. 

Baal-zebub, 324. 

Bel, 559. 

Chemosh, 183. 

Cbiun, 605. 

Dagon, 236. 

Diana, 846, 850. 

Gad, 535. 

Jupiter, 836. 

Meni, 535. 

Mercury, 836. 

MWodach, 559. 

Milcom or Malcham, 304. 

Molech or Moloch, 163. 

Nebo, 518. 

Nergal, 351. 



Nibhaz, 351. 
Nisroch, 355. 
Rimmon, 337. 
Tammuz, 567. 
Tartak, 351. 

3. Notions concerning the gods : — 

A god for the hills, 320. 
Gods like men, 309. 
Gods visiting men, 835. 

4. Places of worship. 

High places, 174. 

Idol treasure-house, 587. 

Temple of Diana, 847. 

5. Practices specially forbidden : — 

Eating blood, 192. 

Planting groves, 194. 

Seething of kids, 133. 

Tattooing, 166. 

Trimming hair and beard, 165. 

Use of honey and leaven in sac- 
rifices, 149. 

Use of mixed seeds, 202. 

"Wearing garments belonging to 
the opposite sex, 200. 

Wearing mixed cloth, 203. 

6. Priests : — 

Chemarim, 621. 

Vestments of the priests of Baal, 
344. 

7. Visible objects of worship : — 

Asheroth, 222. 
Goats, 162. 
Golden calf, 137. 
Graven images, 516. 
Hosts of heaven, 189 
Implements, 617. 
Maachah's idol, 306* 
Molten images, 137, 516. 
Stone images, 1 73. 
Stones, 527. 
Sun, 358. 
Sun images, 174. 
Talismanic images, 250. 
Teraphim, 60. 

7. Divination and Magic. 
1. Various kinds of diviners : — 
Astrologers, 520, 631. 
Charmer, 195. 
Consulter with familiar spirits, 

195. 
Enchanter, 195. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



475 



Magicians, 76. 
Necromancer, 195. 
Observer of times, 195. 
"Wizards and witches, 195. 

2. Various kinds of divination : — 

By arrows, 578. 

By divining cups, 90. 

By the liver, 578. 

By rods, 597. 

By teraphim, 60, 578. 

3. Books of magic, 845. 

8. Ecclesiastical Courts. 

1. Discipline of the synagogue. 656, 
802. 



2. The great sanhedrim, 718, 747. 

3. The lesser sanhedrim, 656. 

9. Miscellaneous. 

1. Corban, 740. 

2. Cursing, 115, 262. 

3. Dancing, 123. 

4. Easting, 783. 

5. Lots, 463. 

6. Pharisees, 672, 693, 700, 739. 

7. Sacred numbers, 468. 

8. Sadducees, 695. 

9. Swearing by the uplifted hand, 5. 

1 0. The burning lamp, 6. 

11. Vows, 851. 

12. Washing the hands, 431. 



n. CIVIL AND POLITICAL CUSTOMS. 



1. Official. 

L Kings and queens : — 

Coronation, 346. 

Crowns, 893. 

King's pillar, 347. 

King, how approached, 395. 

Persian queen, 394. 

Pharaoh, the name, 3. 

Eoads made ready for monarchs, 
513. 

Scepters, 576. 

Silence in presence of royalty, 619, 

Solomon's throne, 303. 
2. Other offioers : — 

Asiarchag, 849. 

Captain of the guard, 71. 

Chamberlains, 391. 

Cup-bearer, 378. 

Herald, 513. 

Tirshatha, 383. 

Town clerk, 850. 

2. Legislative. 

1. Concerning persons : — 
Personal liberty : — 
Adoption, 861. 
Compulsory help, 642. 
Freedom by a javelin, 260. 
Freedom given by the son, 799, 
Opening a servant's ears, 434. 
Rights of a Roman citizen, 841, 
Responsibility of jailers, 840. 



2. Concerning property : — 

Ass fallen under burden, 128. 
Goel. 245. 

Landmarks, 197. 550. 
Law of inheritance, 779. 
Patrimony not to be sold, 322. 
Payment of tribute, 674. 
Tax-gathering, 759. 
Transfer of property, 27. 

3. Unalterable laws, 596. 

3. Judicial. 

1. Courts. — 

Accused standing before the 

judge, 722. 
Agreeing with adversary, 640. 
Appeal to Cesar, 853. 
Condemnation to death, 398. 
Debtor arrested by credi'or, 640. 
Roman council, 853. 
Testimony given standing, 661. 

2. Punishments: — 

Capital punishments : — 
Burning alive, 591. 
Chaining to a corpse. 860. 
Crucifixion, 727, 729,730, 820. 
Cutting in pieces, 589. 
Drowning, 676. 
Pace of the condemned cov- 
ered, 399. 
Guard at executions. 731. 
Hands bound. 270. 



476 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Place of execution, '728. . 
Throwing from a rock, 368. 
Sawing asunder, 883. 
Tablet of the condemned, 732. 
Punishments not capital : — 
Blinding, 360, 517. 
Petters, 360. 
Grinding, 235. 
Hanging by the hand, 562. 
Houses destroyed, 589. 
Men bridled, 512. 
Mutilation, 581. 
Plucking the hair, 386. 
Scourging, 656, 724. 



Selling for debt. 331. 
Stocks, 839. 
Tormentors, 679. 
Prisons and prisoners, 72, 831. 

4. Miscellaneous. 

1. Book of life, 876. 

2. Book of remembrance, 627. 

3. Herodians, 694. 

4. Kissing, an act of homage, 427. 

5. Places of honor, 686. 

6. Eight of asylum, 291. 

7. Safe-conduct, 379. 



IH. MILITARY CUSTOMS. 



1. Arms. 

1. Arrows, 348, 405. 

2. Batttle axes, 561. 

3. Bows, 348. 

4. Darts, 875. 

5. Javelins, 252, 253. 

6. Lances, 252. 

7. Nets, 413. 

8. Quivers, 500. 

9. Spears, 252, 253, 266, 555. 
10. Swords, 255. 

2. Armor. 

1. Breastplate, 251. 

2. Brigandine, 555. 

3. Buckler, 202, 253, 410. 

4. Cuirass, 251. 

5. Greaves, 252. 

6. Helmet, 251. 

7. Shields, 252, 253, 302. 498, 500,615. 

8. Target, 301. 

3. Clothing. 

1. Garments of soldiers, 615. 

2. Girdle, 318. 

3. Sandals, 874. 

4. Scarlet robe, 726. 

4. Engines. 

1. Balistae, 370. 

2. Battering-rams, 565. 

3. Catapultae, 370. 

4. Stone-bows. 363. 



5. Engineering. 

1. Banks, 565. 

2. Bulwarks. 565. 

3. Cataractaj 430. 

4. Fort, 565. 

5. Fortifications, 366. 

6. Treatment op Captured Enemies. 

1. Beheading, 343. 

2. Deportation, 352. 

3. Mutilation, 221. 

4. Placed in processions of triumph, 

505, 870. 

5. Trodden under foot, 220, 628, 869. 

7. War. 

1. Declaration of war, 349. 

2. Readiness for war, 498, 500, 524. 

620. 

3. Time for war. 274. 

8. Miscellaneous. 

1. Captain's chariot, 120. 

2. Cavalrv. 122. 

3. Chariots of war, 119, 615. 

4. Cohort, 725. 

5. Ensigns, 177. 

6. Labor degrading to warriors, 219. 

7. Quaternion, 830. 

8. Roman military discipline, 877, 

878. 

9. Roman military triumphs, 870. 

10. Songs of victory. 258. 259. 

11. Standards. 177. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



477 



IV. SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC CUSTOMS. 



1. Personal and Family. 

*.. Children: — 
Birthright, 41. 
Brought to be blessed, 680. 
Feast at weaning-time, 19. 
In the temple, 689. 
Modes of carrying, 522, 529. 
Names: — 

Change of, 371. 

Derived from animals, 52, 828. 

Double, 807. 

Given at circumcision, 749. 

Eeligion of, 7. 

Significance of, 59, 425 
Nurse, 37. 

Rejoicings over birth of son. 547. 
Salt applied to infants, 574. 
Sleeping with parents, 772. 
Swaddling-clothes, 751. 
The pedagogue, 872. 
2. Death:— 

Arrangements for burial : — 

Closing the eyes, 94. 

Coffins, 102. 

Embalming, 98, 822. 
Bier, 269, 764. 

Corpses devoured by birds, 443. 
Funeral processions, 100, 763. 
Interment: — 

In caves, 28. 

In "houses," 265. 

In the city — rare, 292. 

On day of death, 826. 

Outside of cities, 763. 

Warriors, arms of buried, 582. 

Without coffin, 350. 
Sepulchers : — 

Door of, 734. 

Garnished, 703. 

Marked by stones, 359. 

Sealed, 735. 

Stones heaped over, 217. 

Unseen, 773. 

Whited, 772. 
Sorrow for the dead : — 

BurDings, 367. 

Ceremonial mourning. 2. ; 5. 47, 
98. 



Condolence, 810. 
Feasts of sorrow, 2 1 0. 
Hired mourners, 541. 
Signs of mourning : — 

Baldness, 494. 

Beard cut off, 494. 

Cuttings in the flesh, 166. 

Covering the upper lip, 612. 

Earth on the head, 279. 

Fasting, 277. 

Hands on the head, 537. 

Head covered, 278. 

Loud lamentations, 285. 

Plucking the hair, 386. 

Rending the clothes, 70. 

Sackcloth, 70. 

Sitting on the ground, 490. 

Smiting the breast, 784. 

Smiting the thigh, 549. 
Visits to the grave, 811. 
3. Dress: — 

Garments : — 
Assyrian, 579. 
At feasts, 692. 
Bonnets, 486. 
"Bosom," 760. 
Camel's hair, 632. 
Cauls, 484 

Changeable suits, 487. 
Cloak, 881. 
Coats, 67, 593, 821. 
Costly and elegant, 36. 
Fine linen, 488. 
Gifts of clothing, 93, 257, 397. 
Girdle, 314. 
Hoods, 488. 
Kerchiefs, 573. 
Mantles, 487. 
Mufflers. 485. 
Outer, 205, 246. 
Pawned, 204. 
Perfumed, 436. 
Persian, 593. 
Sandals, 832. 
Scrip, 256. 
Shoe-latchet, 791. 
Shoes, 107, 208, 247, 633, 654. 
Stomacher, 489. 
Tires. 231. 



478 



BIBLE MANNEKS AND CUSTOMS. 



Transparent, 488. 
Tunic, 821. 

Yails, 39, 246, 485, 488. 
White, 472. 
Wimples, 487. 
Ornaments : — 
Amulets, 66, 486. 
Anklets, 483. 
Armlets, 267. 
Bracelets, 35, 267, 485. 
Diadem, 532. 
Ear-rings, 485, 486. 
Fringes, 652. 
Head-bands, 486. 
Jewels of bride and bride- 
groom, 533. 
Jewels on the cheeks. 476. 
Jewels worn at festivals, 108. 
Moon-ornaments, 231. 
Neck-chains, 79, 476. 
Nose-jewels, 35. 
Painting the eyes, 342. 
Plaiting the hair, 489, 886. 
Purses, 487, 563. 
Signet-ring, 79. 
Step-chains, 486. 

4. Food:— 

Animal, 83. 

Bread, 11, 85, 118, 647, 666. 

Butter, 13. 

Butter and honey, 492. 

Cakes, 11. 

Cheese, 254. 

Cracknels, 305. 

Diseased flesh forbidden, 168. 

Free corn for the hungry, 660. 

Grapes, 353. 

Haste in cooking, 12. 

Locusts, 632. 

Milk, 13. 

Parched corn, 241. 

Pottage of lentiles, 42. 

Raisins, 477. 

Savory meat, 46. 

Vinegar, 241. 

Wine, 79, 353, 460, 506. 558. 

5. Marriage : — 

Betrothal. 233, 629. 
Between relatives, 55. 
Bride chosen by parents, 30. 
Dowry given by bridegroom, 707. 
First-born the first right, 58. 



How sought, 105. 
Marriage-feasts, 57, 708, 709. 
Meeting the bridegroom, 707. 
Noisy mirth, 539. 
No religious ceremony, 40. 
Paranymph, 794. 
Servant married to master's 
daughter, 361. 

6. Modes of life : — 

Care of the person : — 

Bathing, 104, 515. 

Feet-washing, 10, 813. 

Hand- washing, 329, 739. 

Shaving, 77. 
Eating and drinking, ordinary : — 

Blessing at meals, 670. 

Crumbs given to dogs, 782. 

Dinner-beds. 712. 

Drunkenness of the Assyrians, 
614. 

G-luttony, 179. 

Laws of drinking, 389. 

Leaning on bosom, 814. 

Modes of eating, 87, 88, 746, 
815. 

Time for eating, 8, 825. 
Feasting : — 

Door closed at feasts, 709. 

Feasts on the Sabbath, 776. 

Governor of the feast, 793. 

Invitation to feasts, 396, 691. 

King's birthday feast, 75. 

Luxury of Babylonians, 588. 

Places at feasts charged, 778. 

Royal banquets, 396. 

Women's feasts, separate, 390. 
General life : — 

Early rising, 21. 

Hospitality, 9, 150, 419, 435. 

Resting at noon, 8, 475. 

Sitting in the shade, 613. 

Time for drawing water, 31. 

Visiting, 768. 

7. Property: — 

Deeds of land buried, 550. 
Hidden treasures, 667. 
Hoarded treasures, 357. 
Raiment reckoned as wealth.417. 
Rod of inheritance, 180. 
Subterranean storehouses. 554. 
Theft, 227, 409, 428. 
Valuables wrapped in cloths. 263. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



479 



8. Servants : — 

Carrying sandals, 633. 
Doorkeepers, 818. 
Pedagogue, 872. 
Promoted, 78. 
Scewards, 29, 781. 
Watchful, 451. 

9. Sickness: — 

Egyptian physicians, 98. 
External applications, 457. 
Oil and wine, 770. 
Ointments, 712. 
Treatment of wounds, 480. 
Use of hyssop, 437. 

2. Habitations. 

1. Cities and villages : — 

Camping-grounds, 186. 
Cities of the giants, 187. 
City gates: — 

Between the two, 282. 

In the midst of, 268. 

Places of assembly, 15. 

Places of justice, 199. 

Shut at sundown, 531. 
Market-places, 339, 684, 842. 
Quarters of the city, 16. 
Watchmen, 283, 479. 

2. Dwellings : — 

Booths, 319. 
Caves, 18. 
Houses : — 
Court: — 
Bath, 275. 
Cisterns, 536. 
Hangings, 388. 
Pillars, 238, 454. 
Dedication of a new house. 

198. 
Entrance : — 
Gate, 462, 833. 
Hinges, 467. 
Inscriptions, 190. 
Keys, 224, 502. 
Locks, 224. 
Low gateways, 462. 
Porch, 721. 
Porter, 283. 
Interior : — 

Chamber on the wall, 333. 
Chamber over the gate. 284. 
Chimnev. 600. 



Decorations, 548, 604. 

Guest-chamber, 745. 

Hearth, 553. 

"House of the women," 
392. 

Pegs, 503. 

Storage-room, 345. 

Winter and summer 
houses, 604. 
Roof:— 

Battlements, 201. 

"Broken up," 736. 

Dwelling on, 464. 

Place of assembling, 499. 

Place of drying, 215. 

Place of prayer, 829. 

Place of promenade, 275. 

Proclamations from, 657. 

Stairs from, 705. 

Grass growing on, 452. 

Leaky, 469. 

Mode of construction, 452. 
Walls :— 

Built of clay, 411, 415. 

Deep foundation, 761. 

Inscriptions on foundation, 
880. 

Wood sometimes used, 618. 
Windows : — 

Glass, 867. 

In the wall, 871. 

Latticed, 228. 
Tents :— 

" Door " of, 8, 14. 
Materials and mode of pitch- 
ing, 474. 
Wife's tent, 40. 
Tombs used for dwellings, 738. 
3. Furniture and utensils: — 
Alabastra, 712. 
Amphorae, 332. 
Barrel, 308. 
Baskets, 671, 871. 
Beds, 325, 388, 606, 649. 
Bedsteads, 188. 

Bottles, 218, 450, 545, 546, 651. 
Box of oil, 341. 
Cruse, 266, 327. 
Drinking-cups, 89. 
Divan, 325. 
Flesh-pots. 124. 
Frying-pan, 155. 



480 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Kneading-troughs, 118. 

Knives, 216. 

Lamps, 230, 638, 708. 

Lampstand, 638. 

Lanterns, 817. 

Mirrors, 139. 

Money-bags, 174. 

Mortars, 470. 

Oven, 155. 

Pan, 155. 

Pillows, 48, 573. 

Pitchers, 32, 744. 

Pots, 332. 

Ranges, 157. 

Sacks, 82. 

Saws, 298. 

Seats without backs, 248. 

Tables, 86, 442. 

Tapestry, 459. 

Yial, 341. 

Vessels for water, 112. 

Wine-strainer, 701. 

3. Employments. 
1. Agriculture: — 
An i mals : — 

Pigeon towers, 530. 

Peed for cattle, 293. 

Horses unshod, 607. 
Crops : — 

Fire in harvest-field, 127. 

Gleaning : — 
Grain, 239. 
Grapes, 504. 
Olives, 206. 

Granaries, 81, 271, 554. 

Harvest from thorns, 404. 

Tares, 665. 
Gardens : — 

Outside of cities, 816. 

The lodge, 481. 

Uncircumcised fruit, 164. 

"Walls of gardens, 690. 
Implements : — 

Pan, 634. 

Goad, 225. 

Mattock, 493. 

Plow, 317, 482. 

Yoke, 599. 
Processes : — 

Corn beaten out, 242. 

Fig-gathering. 608. 



Irrigation, 191,426. 
Olive-gathering, 206. 
Plowing, 766. 
Sowing, 510, 663. 
Threshing, 101, 207, 244, 508. 
■Winnowing, 243, 609. 
Working-day, 682. 
Vineyards : — 
Fruit-trees in them, 775. 
Towers, 690. 
Vine-planting, 690. 

2. Capture of game : — 

Fishing, 422, 668, 758. 
Pitfalls for hunting, 575. 
Rings for fish, 421. 
Snares, 289, 445, 598. 

3. Games and sports : — 

Blindfolding, 788. 
Boxing, 865. 
Crown of leaves, 864. 
Gladiatorial exhibitions, 863. 
Ofiice of herald, 866. 
Piping and mourning, 659. 
Racing, 884. 
Riddles, 234. 
Rules of games, 880. 

4. Mechanic arts and manufactures: — 

Ark of bulrushes, 103. 
Axes, 196, 542, 556. 
Babylonian bricks, 2. 
BeUows, 538. 
Brass, 594. 
Churning, 471. 
Clay, trodden, 616. 
Egyptian bricks, 109. 
Manufacture of wine, 460, 506, 

558, 690. 
Mills, 676, 706. 
Mortar, 159, 572, 628. 
Potter, 544. 

Preparing oil, 135, 213, 418, 446. 
Soap, 626. 
Working in metals, 594. 

5. Modes of labor: — 

Wood gathered by women, 507. 
Mode of carrying burdens, 20, 74. 
Mode of carrying water, 31. 
Singing at work, 495. 
Sitting at work, 759. 

6. Pastoral life: — 

Chief shepherd, 887. 

Division of sheep and goats, 710. 



ANALYTICAL INDEX. 



481 



Egyptian estimation of shep- 
herds, 95. 
Passing under the rod, 176. 
Pastoral wealth, 402. 
Roving habits of shepherds, 95. 
Sheepfold, 803. 
Shepherds and sheep, 804. 
Shepherd's sling, 256. 
Shepherd's staff, 256. 
Towers in the desert, 369. 
Troughs for water, 34. 
Wells, 31, 43, 44. 50, 51, 281, 795. 

7. Trade and commerce : — 

Bargaining, 24, 461. 
Covenant-feasts, 45. 
Exhortations to buy, 526. 
Itinerant merchants, 885. 
Measures: — 

Dry, 11, 125, 338, 586, 638, 
890. 

Liquid, 167, 584, 586, 792. 

Of length, 134, 136, 809. 
Middlemen in traffic, 25. 
Money : — 

Arguria, 713. 

Assarion, 658. 

Clay-money, 374. 

Daric, 373." 

Denarius, 683. 

Gerah, 175. 

Half shekel, 674. 

Kesitah, 65. 

Lepton, 742. 

Pound, 785. 

Quadrans. 742. 

Ring-money, 26. 

Shekel, 26. 

Shekel of the sanctuary, 175. 
■" Stater, 675. 

Talent, 140. 
Money-changers in the temple, 

688. 
Money weighed, 26. 
Time for paying laborers, 685. 
Trade usually learned, 844. 
Weights, 26, 140, 175, 209, 585, 
812. 

8. Traveling: — 

By land : — 

Ass-driver, 334. 
Equipage : — 

Bells on horses, 625. 



Camels' furniture, 62. 

Crowns on horses, 397. 

Saddles, 21. 
Moving : — 

Caravans, 69. 

Day's journey, 315, 753. 

Sabbath-day's journey, 824. 

Swiftness of couriers, 407. 

Traveling at night, 771. 
Resting : — 

Inn, 751. 

Lodgings for travelers, 540. 
Use of white asses. 226. 
Vehicles : — 

Chariots, 80. 

Litters, 478. 

Wagons, 92. 
Wayside, 664. 
By water: — 
Anchors, 857. 
Boat, (skiff,) 855. 
Boat-cushion, 737. 
Ferry-boat, 286. 
Eloats, 294. 
Rudders. 858. 
Ship, 662, 859. 
Undergirding, 856. 
Vessels of bulrushes, 496. 

4. Culture. 

1. Etiquette: — 

Alighting, 38. 

Anointing, 429, 712. 

Bowing, 9. 

Chief seats, 698. 

Guests sprinkled, 525. 

Guests viewed by the host, 692. 

Leaning on another's arm, 337. 

Mode of leave-taking, 22. 

Open letter, 371. 

Orator's hand stretched out, 854. 

Presentation of gifts, 36, 64, 93, 

257, 340, 397, 424. 
Prostration, 80. 
Rank at table, 87, 777. 
Salutations, 84, 240, 336, 767, 

823. 
Sign of abasement, 321. 
The corner.place of honor, 603. 
Touching the beard, 288. 

2. Fine arts : — 

Chambers of imagery, 566. 



482 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Colored sculpture, 580. 




Clay cylinders, 564. 


Needlework, 229. 




Divisions of Jewish Script- 


3. Musical instruments : — 




ures, 789. 


Instruments of percussion : — 




"Jot and tittle," 639. 


Cymbals, 456. 




Letters, 381. 


Shalishim, 258. 




Manuscript rolls, 511, 563. 


Sistrum, 272. 




Sticks, 583. 


Timbrel, 61. 




Stones, 414. 


String instruments: — 




Tablets, 414, 750. 


Dulcimer, 590. 




Schools and teachers : — 


Harp, 61, 590. 




Doctors in the temple, 754. 


Psaltery, 432, 590. 




Rabbi, 699. 


Sackbut, 590. 




Schools of the prophets, 326. 


Wind instruments : — 




Teacher and scholar, 757, 


Cornet, 365, 447. 




852. 


Piute, 590. 




Sun-dial, 356. 


Horn, 365. 






Organ, 455. 
Pipes, 290. 




5. Miscellaneous. 


Trumpets, 447. 


1. 


Almsgiving, 644. 


4. Science and literature : — 


2. 


Calling by hissing, 491. 


Divisions of time ■ — 


3. 


Camels taught to kneel, 31. 


Day, 806, 868. 


4. 


Contempt for women, 796. 


Hour, 591. 


5. 


Dancing, 123, 483, 669. 


Months : — 


6. 


Dust shaken from the feet, 655. 


1. Abib, or Nisan, 193. 


7. 


Dust thrown in contempt, 280. 


2. Zif, 296. 


8. 


Fuel, 307, 441, 646, 819. 


3. Sivan, 400. 


9. 


Kissing between men, 53. 


4. Tammuz (July) ) Not n.en- 

rr A 1 / A i.\ ? tI,,ned »" 

5. Ab (AugUSt) ) the Bible. 


10. 


Manger, 751. 


11. 


Monuments, 49, 211. 


6. Elul, 382. 


12. 


Non-intercourse. 


7. Ethanim, or Tisri, 299. 




Egyptians and foreigners, 86. 


8. Bui, orMarchesvan,297. 




Jews and Samaritans, 800. 


9. Chisleu, 377. 


13. 


Pledge taken, 254. 


10. Tebeth, 393. 


14. 


Serpent-charming, 439. 


11. Sebat, 622. 


15. 


Shaking out the lap, 380. 


12. Adar, 376. 


16. 


Signification. 


Night-watches, 121, 743. 




Of baldness, 328. 


Materials for writing . — 




Of barefoot, 208. 


Ink, 552. 




Of beard. 273. 


Inkhorn, 570. 




Of clapping the hands, 577. 


Pens, 888. 


17. 


Signs by feet and lingers, 458. 


Seals, 323, 420. 


18. 


Special use of terms. 


Philosophers : — 




Brother, 4. 


Epicureans, 843. 




Children, 650. 


Magi, 630. 




Daughter, 650. 


Stoics, 843. 




Father, 1. 


Reading aloud, 827. 




Son, 650. 


Records : — 


19. 


Spitting and buffeting, 719. 


Books, 414. 


20. 


Swearing, 29, 641. 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



483 



II. TEXTUAL INDEX, 



"Where a text and number are printed in full face, it indicates that the text 
has an article especially devoted to it. 



ch. ver. Genesis. no. 

2. 1 189 

4.15 571 

4.20 1,474 

4. 21 61, 455 

4. 22 594 

9.4 191 

9. 5, 6 245 

11.3 2 

11.31 4 

12.15 3 

13. 2 402 

13. 5 402 

14.5 304 

14.10 2 

14. 16 4 

14.22 5 

15. 2 781 

15. 10 551 

15. 17 6, 551 

16.5 264 

16.13 7 

17. 5 371 

17. 15 371 

18.1 8 

18.2,3 9 

18.4 10 

18.6 11 

18.7 12 

18. 8 13 

18.9,10 40 

18.10 14 

19. 1 15 

19. 2 9, 10, 21 

19.3 9 

19.4 16 

19.26 17 

19.30 18 

21. 8 19 

21. 14 20, 21, 651 

21.20 348 



Ch. Ver. Gen. No. 

21.21 30 

21.25 44 

22.3 21 

22.5 22 

23. 2 23 

23. 5, 6 24 

23.7 9 

23.8 25 

23. 10 ' 15 

23.11 24 

23.12 9 

23. 15 264 

23.16 26 

23.17,18 27 

23.19 28 

24.2,3 29 

24.4 30 

24.11 31 

24. 15 20, 32 

24.16 33 

24.20 34 

24. 22 26, 35 

24. 32 10 

24. 35 402 

24. 36 779 

24.47 35 

24. 53 36, 629 

24.59 37 

24.64 38 

24.65 39 

24.67 40 

25. 5 779 

25. 16 186 

25. 31, 33 41 

25.34 42 

26.15 43 

26.20 44 

26. 30, 31 45 

26.35 30 

27. 3 348 



Ch. Ver. Gen. No. 

27.3,4 46 

27. 27 53, 436 

27.41...., 47 

27.46 30 

28. 1 30 

28.5 4 

28. 11 48 

28. 18 21, 49 

28. 20-22 851 

29. 2 50 

29.3 51 

29.6 52 

29.10 31 

29.12 4 

29.13 53 

29.17 54 

29.19 55 

29.20 56 

29.22 57 

29.26 58 

29.32 59 

30. 36 315 

30.38 34 

31. 13 351 

31. 14..: 779 

31. 19 60 

31.23 315 

31.27... 61 

31.33 40 

31.34 62 

31.46 217 

31.48 63 

31.49 264 

31.54 45 

32. 10 256 

32.28 371 

33.4 53 

33.10 64 

33. 17 319 

33. 19 65 



484 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Ch. Ver. Gen. No. 

34.4 30 

34.12 56 

34.20 15 

35.2 126 

35.4 66 

35.10 371 

35.14 49 

37.3 67 

37.4 823 

37.24 68 

37. 25 69, 85 

37.34 70 

37. 36 71,287 

38.6 30 

38.14 39 

38. 18 323 

38. 24 367 

39.4 29 

40. 2 378 

40. 3 72 

40.11 73 

40.16 74 

40.20 75 

41. 8 76 

41.14 77 

41.41 78 

41.42 79,476 

41.43 80 

41.45 371 

41.48 81 

42.6 9 

42.25 82 

43.11 64 

43. 16 8, 83 

43.24 Id 

43.25 ' 8 

43.26 9 

43.29 84 

43.31 85 

43.32 86 

43.33 87 

43.34 88 

44. 2 89 

44. 5 90 

45.2 91 

45.15 53 

45. 19 92 

45.22 93 

46.4 94 

46.34 95 

47. 6 887 



Ch. Ver. Gen. No. 

47.29 29 

48.10 53 

48. 14 680 

48.22 348 

49.8 96 

49. 11 690 

49.12 97 

50.1 94 

50.2,3 98 

50.4 99 

50. 9 100 

50. 10... 47, 101,285 
50.26 102 

Exodus. 

2. 3 103 

2. 5 104 

2. 16 31, 34 

2. 17 227 

2. 20 85 

2. 21 56, 105 

3. 1 . 56, 106 

3. 5 107 

3. 6 316 

3. 13. 14 ... 7 

3. 16 717 

3. 18 717 

3. 22 108 

4. 27 53 

4. 29 717 

5. 3 315 

5. 7 109 

5. 11 110 

7. 11 76, 195 

7. 19 Ill, 112 

7. 20 113 

7.21 114 

7. 22 76 

8. 27 315 

9. 8 115 

9. 29 300 

9. 33 300 

10.21 116 

11. 1-3 108 

11.5 706 

12. 11 117, 314 

12.21 717 

12. 22 437 

12.26,27 716 

12.34 118, 205 

12. 35, 36 108 



Ch. Ver. Exod. No. 

13. 1-10 697 

13. 9 697 

13.11-16 697 

14. 6. 119 

14. 7 120 

14. 24 121 

15. 1 122 

15. 20 123, 258 

15.21 259 

16. 3 124 

16. 29 824 

16. 36 125 

18. 7 53 

19. 10 126 

19.16 447 

20. 24 145 

20. 26 148 

21. 6 434 

21. 14 291 

21. 32 713 

22. 6 127 

22. 18 195 

22. 26 205 

22.31 168 

23. 5 128 

23. 11 171 

23. 14 129 

23. 15 130 

23. 16 131 

23. 17 132 

23. 19 133 

24. 4 49 

25. 10 134 

25. 10-15 142 

25. 12 142 

25. 16 142 

25. 17 142 

25. 18-20 142 

25. 21 142 

25.23-28 143 

25. 29 143 

25.31-40 143 

26. 33 141 

26. 34 141, 142 

26. 35 141, 143 

27. 3 882 

27. 5 145 

27. 9-19 147 

27. 19 882 

27. 20 135 

28. 6. 7 148 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



485 



Cb. Ver. Exod. No. 

28. 8 148 

28.9-12 148 

28. 11 323 

28. 15-29 148 

28. 16 136 

28. 29 141 

28.36 323 

28.39,40 148 

28.42 148 

29.5 148 

29. 12 145 

29.39 311 

29.40 135 

30. 6 141 

30.7,8 882 

30. 13 674 

30. 17-21 146 

30. 18 146 

30. 23, 24 712 

30. 28 146 

30. 34-36 882 

31.9 146 

31. 18 414 

32. 2 66 

32.4 137 

32. 6 138 

32.20 137 

32. 25 138 

32.32 876 

34.4 21, 414 

34.28 414 

35.16 146 

35. 18 147 

35.26 141 

36. 8-13 141 

36. 14 ; 141 

36. 19 141 

36. 20-30 141 

36. 21 141 

36. 22 " 141 

36. 24 141 

36.31-34 141 

36.35 141 

36. 36 141 

36. 37 141 

36.38 141 

37. 25-28 144 

38. 1-7. 145 

38. 2-6 594 

38.4 145 

38. 8 139, 146,594 



Cb. Ver. Exod. No. 

38.20 141 

38.24 140 

38. 25 140 

39. 3 148 

39. 4 148 

39. 6 323 

39. 22-26 148 

39. 28 148 

39.30,31 346 

39. 39 146 

40. 2 141 

40. 3 142 

40.4 143 

40. 5 144 

40.6 145 

40.7 146 

40. 8 147 

40. 1 1 146 

40. 13 148 

40. 26 144 

40. 29 145 

40.30-32.... 146,431 

Leviticus. 

1.1-17 151 

2.1-16 152 

2.4 155 

2.11 149 

2.13 150 

2. 14 241 

3. 1-5 156 

3. 7 156 

3. 12 156 

4.2 153 

4.3-12 153 

4. 7 145 

4. 13-21 153 

4. 22-26 153 

4.27-35 153 

5. 7-13 153 

5. 15-6. 7 154 

5. 18 154 

6. 8-13 151 

6.9 151 

6. 14 152 

6. 14-23 152 

6. 24-30 153 

6.25 153 

6. 28 157 

7.1... 154 

7. 2 154 



Ch. Ver. I.uv. No. 

7.9 155 

7. 11 156 

7. 12, 13 156 

7. 16 156 

7. 19-21 156 

7.26,27 192 

7. 31-34 156 

8. 11 146 

9.22 145 

11. 33 157 

11. 35 158 

13.45 612 

14.4 437 

14.6 437 

14. 42 159 

14.49 437 

14.51 437 

14.52 437 

16. 8 463 

16.21 160 

16. 34 161 

17.07 162 

17.10-14 192 

17.15 168 

18.21 163 

19. 9 239 

19. 10 504 

19. 13 685 

19.23 164 

19. 27 165 

19.28 166 

19.36 167 

20. 1-5 163 

21. 5 166 

22.8. 168 

23.10.: 131 

23. 14 241 

23. 17 131 

23.18 169 

23. 18, 19 131 

23. 22 239 

23. 24 170 

23. 27 161 

23.32 868 

23. 34 131 

23.39-43 131 

23. 40 891 

24. 2 135 

24.5-9 143 

24.14 727 

25.4 171 



486 



BIBLE MANSERS' AND CLSTOMS. 



Ch. Ver. Lbv. No. 

25. 6 171 

25. 9 447 

25. 10 172 

25. 11 172 

25. 20-22 172 

25. 23 322 

25. 25 245, 322 

25.39-41 331 

26.1 173 

26. 30 174 

27.1-7 851 

27.9,10 851 

27. 14-25 851 

27. 25 175 

27. 32 176 

27.33 851 

Numbers. 

2. 2 177 

3.6 178 

4.4-15 178 

4. 21-28 178 

4. 23 178 

4.29-33 178 

4. 30 178 

4.35 178 

5. 6-8 245 

5.22 364 

5. 23 552 

6. 3 241 

6. 13-21 851 

7. 1 49 

7. 3 478 

8.24 178 

8. 25 178 

10. 1-10 170,447 

10. 2 447 

11. 5 124 

11.8 470 

11. 12 522, 760 

11.16 717 

11. 16, i7 718 

11.20 179 

11. 23 528 

11.25 717 

11.31 315 

15. 4 152 

15. 5 152 

15.6 152 

15. 9 152 

15. 4-12 169 



Ch. Ver. Num. No. 

15.35.36 727 

15. 38, 39 652 

17. 2 180, 583 

18. 19 150 

19 181 

19.2 181 

19. 6 437 

19.11 826 

19. 14 826 

19. 18 437, 702 

20.28 182 

21. 29 183 

22. 24 690 

22.41 184 

24. 5 474 

24.10 577 

25. 3 185 

25. 7 555 

27. 8 779 

27.21 148 

28.5 135 

28.26 131 

29. 1-6 170 

29.7 161 

29. 12-38 131 

30. 2 851 

31.22 594 

31. 50 35, 267 

32. 16 803 

32. 24 803 

32. 36 803 

33. 52 173 

34. 13 463 

35. 1-8 178 

35. 15-32 291 

35. 19 245 

36 361 

36.7 322 

Deuteronomy. 

1.2 315 

1. 41 318 

2.23 186 

3. 5 187 

3. 11 134, 188 

4. 19 189 

6. 4-9 190, 697 

6. 8 697 

6. 9 190 

7. 5 527 

8. 9 594 



Ch. Ver. Dklt. No. 

9. 21 137 

11. 10 191 

11. 13-21 190, 697 

11.18 697 

12.3 527 

12.23,24 192 

14. 1 166 

15. 1, 2 171 

15.16,17 434 

16. 1 193 

16.9,10 131 

16. 18 199, 656 

16.21 194 

17.3 189 

17. 8-12 178 

18.10,11 195 

19. 5 196 

19. 14 197 

20. 5 198 

20. 7 629 

20.19 196 

20. 20 565 

21.6,7 431 

21.17 779 

21. 19 199 

21. 22, 23 730 

22. 5 200 

22. 8 201 

22. 9 202 

22. 10 510 

22. 11 203 

22. 12 652 

23.21,22 851 

23. 25 660 

24.6 706 

24.10,11 204 

24. 12, 13 ...205, 602 

24. 14, 15 685 

24. 19 239 

24. 20 206 

24. 21 504 

25. 3 656 

25. 4 207 

25. 5 245 

25. 7 199 

25.7-10 245, 217 

25. 9 719 

25. 10 208 

25.13 209 

26. 1-10 131 

26. 14 210 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



487 



Oi. Ver. Deut. No. 

27. 2, 3 211 

27. 15-26 364 

27.17 197 

28. 26 443 

28. 40 429 

81. 9 178 

31. 10-13 131, 171 

31.24-26 142 

81.25.26 178 

81. 26 142 

32.5 212 

82. 13 418,492 

82. 31 527 

82. 37 527 

33.10 151 

33. 12 522 

33. 24 213, 222 

33. 25 222 

33.27 214 

Joshua. 

2.6 215 

2.15 871 

4. 3-9 49 

4.3 217 

4.6 217 

5. 2 216 

5. 15 107 

6. 5 365,447 

7. 6 70, 279 

7. 21 229, 667 

7. 26 217 

8. 18 252 

8. 26 252 

8. 32 414 

9.4 218 

9.21 219 

9.21-27 372 

10. 24 220 

14. 2 463 

15.16, 7 105 

15.18 38 

20.4 199 

21.13-19 178 

24. 26 49 

Judges. 

1. 6 221 

1. 16 366 

2. 11 222 

2. 13 304 



Ch. Ver. Judges. No. 

3. 7 222 

3. 13 366 

3. 16 313 

3. 18 64, 340 

8. 20 333 

3. 23 223,721 

3. 25 224 

8. 27 447 

3. 31 225 

4.18 40 

4. 19 651 

4. 21 474 

5. 8 555 

5. 10 226 

5. 11 227 

5.25 13 

5. 28 228 

5. 30 229 

6. 2 18 

6. 11 508 

6.18 9 

6. 19 11 

6.25-30 222 

7. 16 230 

7. 19 121 

7. 20 32 

8. 2 504 

8. 21 231 

8. 26 231 

8. 33 222, 232 

9.8 346 

9.15 346 

9. 25 409 

9. 27 495, 690 

9. 46 232 

9. 48 556 

10. 6 304 

10. 10 222 

11.24 183 

11.30.31 851 

11. 34 123. 258 

11. 35 285, 851 

13. 4, 5 851 

13.15 9 

14. 2 30 

14.7,8 233 

14.8 629 

14. 12.. 57, 93,234,488 

14. 13 93, 488 

14. 19 i 93 

16. 21. ......235, 360 

30 



Ch. Ver. Judges. No 

16. 23 236 

16. 27 237 

16. 29 238 

17. 5 60 

IS. 14 60 

18. 17 60 

18. 18 60 

18.20 60 

19.20 823 

19.22 650 

20. 9 463 

20. 16 256 

21.19-21 123 

Ruth. 

2.3 239 

2. 4 240 

2. 14.... , 241 



3.2. 
3. 3. 
3. 7. 
3. 9. 

3. 12 



243 
429 
244 
245 

245 



3. 15 246,487 

4. 1 199 

4. 4 245 

4. 7 247 



1.9.. 


I Samuel. 
248 


1. 11 . 


851 


1. 16. 


650 


1. 24. 


11 


1. 26. 


741 


2. 1.. 


249 


2. 10 

3. 3.. 


249 

142 


4. 4.. 
4.12. 

4. 18. 

5. 4. 


295 

70, 279 

15, 248 

236 


6.5.. 


250 


7. 3. . 


304 


7. 4.. 
7. 12. 


222, 304 

49 


8. 11 . 


314 


8. 15 . 


391 


9. 7. . . 


64 


9. 11. 


81 


9. 13 


670 



488 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Ch. Ver. I Sam. No. 

9.16 346 

9. 25 464 

9. 26 201,464 

10. 1 341,346, 427 

10. 5 290, 326, 432 

10.10 326 

10. 27 64 

11. 2 360 

11.11 121 

12.3 346 

12.5 346 

12.10 222, 304 

13.3 447 

13.6 18 

13.20 556 

14.32-34 192 

14.41-42 463 

15.23 578 

15.33 589 

16.20 651 

17. 5 251 

17. 6 252 

17.7 253 

17.17 241 

17.18 254 

17.39 255 

17.40 256 

17.43 256 

17. 44-46 443 

17,45 252 

17.51 343 

17.57 343 

18.4........... 257 

18. 6........ 123, 258 

18. 7 .; 259 

18. 10, 11.. 253 

18. 27 ; 105 

19. 9, 10 253 

19.10 260 

19.12 . .. 871 

1 9. 1 3 60 

19. US 60 

19. 19, 20..;..... 326 
19.24 ......... 261 

20. 25 -....248, 686 

20.30.......... 262 

20. 33 .....-.-. .-..-. 253 

20. 41 ... . 53 

21. 7 887 

21. 9...... 263 

21. 13 ... 273 



Ch. Ver. I Sam. No. 

22. 1. 2 18 

22.18 148 

23. 13, 14 18 

23.29 18 

24. 3 18, 803 

24.12 264 

25. 1 265 

25.6 823 

25.13 318 

25. 18 241 

25.23 38 

25.29 256 

25.41 10 

26. 7 253 

26. 11 266 

28.6 148 

28. 7, 8 

28.22-25 

28. 24 

31.9 



195 

85 

83 

343 
31.10 .... 304 



31. 12 
31. 13 



367 
47 



II Samuel 

1. 2 

1. 10 

1. 11 

1. 14 

1. 16 

2.4 

2. 23 

3. 27 ........... 268 

3. 31 70, 269 

3.34 270 

3.35 210 

4.6 271 

5.6-8 250 

6.2 295 

6j 5 272,432 



279 
267 

70 
346 
346 
346 
253 



12: 



261 
... ' 228 
... 477 
123, 261 
. . . 650 



6; 14 .... 

6. 16 

6. 19... >. 

6. 20..;.. 

7. 10 , 

10s 4. 273 

lis 1 274 

11.2 275 

11.8 10 

11. 14 381 

12. 3 276, 760 



Ch. Ver. II Sam. No. 

12.21 277 

12.31 883 

13. 18 67 

13. 19 279, 537 

13. 31 70 

14. 2 429 

14. 7 245 

15.1 314 

15. 8. 9 851 

15. 30 208, 278 

15.32 279 

16. 13 280 

17. 18, 19 281 

17. 27-29 64 

17. 28 241 

17. 29 492 

18. 11 257 

18. 17 217 

18. 18 217 

18. 24 282, 284 

18. 26 283 

18. 33 284, 333 

19.4 285 

19. 18 286 

20. 7 287 

20. 9 288 

20.15 565 

20.23 287 

22.6 239 

22.31 302 

22.35 594 

22. 41 96 

23. 6, 7 441 

23. 23 287 

24.21-25 295 

24. 22 508 

I Kings. 

1. 5 314 

1. 32 695 

1.34 346 

1. 39 346 

1.40 290 

1. 50 291 

2. 10 292 



2. 19 
2. 28. 
2. 34, 
4. 13. 
4. 22. 
4. 25 



686 
291 
265 
187 
586 
613 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



489 



Ch. Ver. I Kwas 

4. 28 


No. 

... 293 


5. 9 


... 294 


5. 11 


... 135 


6. 2 


... 295 


6. 3 


... 295 


6. 4 


... 295 


6. 5 


... 295 


6. 6 


... 295 


6. 7 


..". 196 


6. 10.... 


... 295 


6. 15 


... 295 


6. 17 


... 295 


6. 17-20 

6. 18 


... 141 
... 295 


6. 20 


... 295 


6. 23-28 

6 29 


... 295 
... 295 


6. 30 


... 295 


6. 31, 32 


295 


6. 33-35 

6. 36 


295 

... 295 


6. 37 


296 


6. 38 


297 


7. 8 


387 


7.9 

7. 12 


.298, 387 
387 


7. 15-22 

7. 50 


295 

295 


8.2 


.... 299 


8. 6 


295 


8. 9 


142 


8. 12 


295 


8. 22 

8. 44 


.300, 741 
595 


8.-48 


595 


10. 1 


234 


10. 2 


64 


10. 5 


378 


10. 10 

10. 12 

10. 16 


64 

432 

301 


10. 17 

10. 18 

11. 5 


.... 303 
304 


11. 7 


183 


11. 33 


304 


11. 43 

12. 2 


292 

138 


12. 25 

12. 28 '.. 


366 

138 


13. 30 


285 



Ch. Ver. I Kings. No. 

14. 3 64, 305, 545 

14. 6 483 

15. 13 306 

15. 18 337 

16. 33 222 

16. 34 366 

17. 10 .. 307 

17. 12 266, 308 

17.12 678 

17. 12, 13 11 

17. 19 333 

17.23 333 

18. 23 184 

18. 26 645 

18.26-28 184 

18.27 309 

18. 28 310, 555 

18. 33 308 

18.36 311 

18. 40-46 311 

18.41 312 

18.42 313 

18. 46 314 

19.4 315 

19. 6 11, 266 

19. 13 316 

19. 18 184, 427 

19. 19 182, 317 

20. 11 318 

20.16 319 

20. 28 320 

20. 32 321 

21. 3 322 

21. 8 ........323,381 

21. 13 727 

21. 27 70 

22. 9 391 

22. 34 251 

22. 39 ... 604 



II Kings. 

1. 2 324, 333 

1.4 325 

1. 8 ..314, 632 

2. 3 326 

2. 5 326 

2. 7 326 

2. 12 70, 326 

2. 13, 14 182 

2. 20..... 327 



Cb. Ver. II Kings. No. 

2.23 328 

3. 9 315 

3. 11 329 

3. 19 43 

3. 25 43 

3.27 330 

4. 1 331,326 

4. 2 332, 326 

4. 10 333 

4.22 334 

4. 23 335, 336 

4. 26 336 

4. 29 314, 767 

4. 38 326 

4.39... 760 

4.43 326 

5.5 64.93 

5.5-7 381 

5. 15 64 

5. 18 337 

5. 21 38 

5. 23 487, 774 

6.1,2 326 

6. 5, 6 196 

6. 21 326 

6. 25 338 

7. 1 11, 339 

7. 2 337 

7. 10 283 

7. 16 11 

7. 17 337 

8. 6 391 

8. 9 64, 340 

9. 1 314,341 

9. 13 356, 687 

9. 17-20 283 

9. 17 366 

9.20 119 

9. 30 342 

9.30-33 228 

9. 32 391 

9. 33 368 

10. 1 381 

10. 8 343 

10. 19 184 

10. 22 344 

11. 2 345 

11. 12 346 

11. 14 347 

12. 4 674 

12.10 774 



490 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



13. 15 348 

13. 17 228, 349 

13. 21 350 

15. 29 352 

16. 3 163 

17. 10 222 

17. 16 189, 222 

17. 17 163 

17. 30, 31 351 

18. 11 352 

18.13 352 

18. 31 536 

18. 32 353 

18.34 354 

18. 37 70 

19. 1 70 

19. 15 295 

19.24 191 

19. 26.* 452 

19. 28 512 

19. 29 172 

19.32 565 

19. 37 355 

20. 11 356 

20. 13 357, 712 

20. 17, 18 391 

21. 3 189, 222 

21.6 163 

21. 7 222 

21. 13 327 

21. 18 292 

21.26 292 

23. 3 347 

23. 5 189, 621 

23. 6 222 

23. 7 222 

23.10 163 

23. 11 358,391 

23. 12 333 

23. 13 304 

23. 17 359 

23. 24 60 

23. 34 371 

24. 14 352 

24. 17 371 

25. I 565 

25.4 366 

25.7 360 

25. 8 71 

25. 11 352 

25. 19 391 



I Chronicles. 

Ch. Ver. No. 

2. 34, 35 361 

6.54-60 178 

9. 26 587 

10. 9 362 

12. 2 363 

12.8 555 

13.8 432 

15. 16 432,456 

15.28 447 

16. 3 477 

16. 5 432 

16. 36 364 

20. 3 883 

21. 23-25 27 

21. 23 508 

21. 25 26 

23. 5 283 

23. 24-27 178 

24.1-19 717 

24. 3, 4 717 

24.5 717 

25. 1 432 

25. 5 365 

25. 6 456 

26. 13 283,463 

27. 25 554 

27. 28 554 

28. 1 391 

28. 2, 3 295 

28. 11-19 295 

29. 24 560 

II Chronicles. 

2.16 294 

3.1 295 

3.3 134 

3. 4 295 

3.5 295 

3. 7 295 

3. 10-13 142, 295 

3.14 295 

4.1-6 295 

4.7,8 295 

4. 9 295 

5. 13 456 

6. 12 300 

6. 13 347,741 

6. 34 595 

8. 5 366 

8. 14 283, 717 



Ch. Ver. II Chron. No. 

9. 4 378 

9. 15 301 

9. 16 302 

9. 17 303 

9. 24 64, 93 

11. 5-10 366 

11.15 162 

12. 3 122 

13. 5 150 

13. 11 295 

15. 14 447 

15.16 306 

15. 24 447 

16. 14 367 

18. 33 251 

21. 19 367 

22.11 345 

23. 9 302 

23. 11 346 

23. 13 347 

24. 6 : 674 

24. 7 222 

24. 9 674 

24. 18 222 

25. 12 368 

26. 10 369 

26. 14 251 

26. 15 366, 370 

26.20 717 

27.4 369 

28. 3 163 

28. 27 292 

29. 18 295 

29. 34 151 

30. 6 407 

30. 8 560 

31. 11 587 

32. 5 366 

32.27 357 

32. 28 803 

32.33 292 

33. 3 222 

33. 19 222 

34. 4 174 

34. 31 347 

35.4 717 

35. 13 327 

35.24 80 

35. 25 541 

36. 4 371 

36. 20 352 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



491 



Ezra. 

Ch. Ver. No. 

2.43 372 

2. 63 383 

2. 69 373, 585 

3. 7 374 

3.11 259 

6. 1, 2 511 

6. 3, 4 375 

6. 11 589 

6. 15 376 

8. 27 373 

9. 3 70, 386, 494 

9. 5 300 

9.8 503 

10. 5 717 

10. 19 461 

Nehemiah. 

1. 1 377 

1. 11 378 

2.1 193 

2. 7 379 

4. 16 251 

5. 5 331 

5. 8 331 

5. 13 380 

6. 5 381 

6. 15 382 

7.1 283 

7. 65 383 

7. 70 383 

7.71, 72 373, 585 

8.9 383 

8. 10 384 

8.15 891 

8.16 387 

9. 1 279 

9.7 371 

10. 1 383 

10. 34 385 

10. 38 587 

12.7 717 

12.27 198 

13.15 690 

13.20,21 339 

13.25 386 

13. 31 385 

Esther. 

1.3 396 

1.5 387 



Ch. Ver. Esthbk. No. 

1. 6 188, 388, 712 

1. 8., 389 

1. 9 390, 392 

1. 10 391 

1. 19 596 

2.7 371 

2.8 392 

2. 13 392 

2. 14 392 

2. 16 393 

2. 17 394 

2. 21 391 

3. 7 193, 401 

3. 10-12 79 

3. 13 407, 596 

3.15 407 

4. 5 392 

4. 11... 395 

5. 2 395, 576 

5. 8 691 

5. 12 396 

6. 1, 2 627 

6. 4, 5 387 

6. 8 397 

6. 12 278 

6. 14 691 

7. 7 398 

7.8 399, 712 

8. 2 79 

8.4 395 

8. 5 596 

8. 8 79 

8. 9 400 

8. 10 79 

8. 11 596 

8. 14 407 

9. 19 384 

9.22 384 

9. 26 401 

Job. 

1.3 402 

1. 5 21 

1.15-17 409 

1. 20 70, 494 

2. 4 403 

2.12 279 

2. 13 47,490 

3.21,22 667 

4. 19 415 

5.4 : 199 



Ch. Ver. Job. No. 

5. 5 404 

6. 4 405 

7. 2 406 

7.5 416 

9.6 387 

9. 7-9 189 

9. 25 407 

9. 30 408 

9. 33 63 

12.6 409 

11.13 300 

11. 15 212 

13.27 839 

14. 17 774 

15.26 410 

15. 28 411 

16.12 96 

16.15 249 

17. 3 461 

17. 14 416 

17.16 444 

18. 5, 6 412 

18.6 638 

18. 8 598 

18. 8-10 445 

19. 6 413 

19.23,24 414 

19. 26 416 

20.17 492 

20.24 348,594 

21.12 455 

21. 17 412 

21. 18 634 

21. 26 416 

22. 26 212 

22.27 851 

24. 2 197 

24. 7, 8 205 

24. 9 331 

24. 10 239 

24. 16 415 

24. 20 416 

26. 11 387 

27. 16 417 

27. 18 319, 481 

27.23 577 

28.2 594 

29. 3 412 

29. 6 418,471 

29. 7 15 

29. 14 488 



492 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Ch. Ver. Joe. No. 

30.10 719 

30. 23 265 

30.31 455 

31. 7 212 

31. 17 419 

31. 21 199 

31.26-28 189 

31.27 427 

31. 32 9 

31. 33 760 

32. 19 195 

33. 24 444 

37.18 139 

33. 9 751 

38. 14 420 

38.25 426 

38. 30 50 

39. 9 751 

39. 23 252 

39. 25 447 

40. 7 314 

41. 1 497 

41. 2 421 

41. 7 422 

41.24 706 

41.29 252 

41. 31 712 

41. 34 650 

42. 10 423 

42. 11 65, 424 

42.12 402 

42. 14 342,425 

42.15 779 

Psalms. 

1.3 426 

1.4 634 

2. 2 346 

2. 12 427 

3. 7 440 

5.7 595 

5.12 253 

7. 15 575 

8. 6 869 

9. 15.... 575, 598 

10. 8 186, 428 

15. 1-5 696 

16.4 192 

18.5 289 

18. 28 412 

18. 34 348, 594 



Ch. Ver. Psalms. No. 

18.40 96 

21.9 591 

22. 25 851 

23. 4 256 

23. 5 429 

24.7 430 

26. 6 431 

28.1 444 

28. 2 300, 595 

30. Title 198 

30. 3 444 

31. 4 59S 

33. 2 432 

35.7 575 

35. 13 161, 433 

38. 2 348 

40. 6 434 

40. 7 511 

41. 9 435 

44. 20 300 

45. 3 318 

45. 7 429 

45. 8 436, 604 

45. 9 36, 686 

45. 13, 14 36, 229 

47. 1 346 

50. 14 851 

51. 7 437 

51.19 151 

52. 8 387 

55. 17 595 

56. 6 428 

56. 8 438 

56. 12 851 

57. 6 598 

58. 4, 5 439 

58. 6 440 

58. 9 307, 441 

60. 8 247 

61. 3 369 

62.3 415 

63. 1 21 

63.6 121 

65. 6 314 

66.13 851 

68.31 300 

69.12 15 

69. 22 442 

69. 28 876 

72.10 64 

73. 13 431 



Ch. Ver. Psalms. No. 

74. 5 556 

75.3 387 

75.4,5 249 

75. 8 460 

76. 11 64 

78. 70 803 

79.2 443 

79. 12 760 

80. 1 295 

80. 12 690 

80. 17 686 

81. 6 544 

88. 4 444 

88. 9 300 

89.6 650 

89.17 249 

89. 24 249 

89.50 760 

91. 3 445 

92 3 . 432 

92. 1*6 .'.'.'249742 9, 446 
92.12,13 387 

93. 1 314 

94.13 575 

98. 6 447 

99. 1 295 

104. 2 388 

104. 3 333 

104.13 333 

104. 15 429 

106. 19, 20 448 

106. 28 449 

106.37,38 163 

110. 1 686, 869 

112. 9 249 

113-118 716 

116. 3 289 

116. 14 851 

116. 18 851 

118. 12 441 

119. 83 450 

119.118 869 

119.148 121 

123. 2 451 

124.7 445 

127. 1 479 

127. 5 15, 199 

129. 6 452 

129. 6-8 240 

129. 7 760 

132. 3 325 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



493 



Ch. Ver. Psalms. No. 

132. 18.. 864 

133.2 429, 712 

134. 2 300 

137. 1 490,838 

138. 2 595 

140. 5 445, 598 

141.2 300 

141. 5 453 

141. 7 443 

141. 9 445 

142. 3 445 

142. 7 423 

143. 6 300 

143. 7 444 

144. 9 432 

144. 12 454 

149. 3 123 

150. 4 123, 455 

150. 5 456 

Proverbs. 

1. 9 476 

1.11 428 

1. 12 444 

1.21 15 

2. 4 667 

3. 3 476, 750 

3. 8 457 

6.1 461 

6. 13 458 

6. 25 342 

6. 27 760 

7. 6 228 

7. 16 459 

7. 23 445 

9. 1 387 

9. 2 460 

10. 26 241 

11.1 209 

11.21 "... 461 

11. 22 35 

13.9 412 

16. 11 209 

16. 33 463 

17. 18 461 

17. 19 462 

17. 23 760 

18. 10 369 

18. 16 64 

18. 18 463 

19. 13 469 



Ch. Ver. Proverbs. No. 

19. 24 327 

20. 10 209 

20. 20 412 

20. 25 851 

20. 26 508 

21. 1 426 

21. 9 464 

21. 14 760 

22. 5 445 

22. 22 199 

22. 26 461 

22. 28 197 

23. 10 197 

23. 30 460 

24. 20 412 

24. 31 :... 690 

25. 11 465 

25. 13 466 

25. 16 492 

25. 18 561 

25. 20 626 

25. 24 464 

25. 27 492 

26. 14 467 

26. 15 327 

26. 21 819 

26. 25 468 

26. 27 575 

27. 15 469 

27. 22 470 

30. 33 471 

31. 18 638 

31. 22 459 

31. 23 199 

31. 24 488 

ECCLESIASTES. 

2. 5, 6 426 

5. 4, 5 851 

5. 12 667 

6. 3 443 

7.1 712 

7.6 441 

9. 8 429, 472 

10. 5-7 334 

10. 11 439 

10. 18 411 

11. 1 473 

12. 4 650, 706 

12. 5 541 

12. 6 536 



Solomon's Song. 

Cli. Ver. No. 

1.3 712 

1.5 474 

1. 7 475 

1. 10 476 

2. 5 477 

2. 9 228 

3.3 479 

3.8 318 

3. 9, 10 478 

4.9 476 

4. 10 712 

4. 11 436, 492 

5. 3 10 

54 223 

5. 7 479 

8. 2 460 

8. 6 267 

Isaiah. 

1.3 751 

1. 6 480 

1. 8 319, 481 

1. 15 300 

1.22 460 

1.30 426 

2. 4 482 

3. 16 483 

3. 18 231, 476, 484 

3. 19 485 

3. 20 66, 486, 532 

3.21 35 

3.22 245, 487, 573 

3. 23 139, 488 

3. 24 489 

3. 26 490 

4. 3 876 

5. 1, 2 690 

5. 5 690 

5.10 584 

5. 12 290,432 

5.22 460 

5. 26 491 

5.27 791 

5.28 607 

6.2 316 

6. 3 259 

7. 15 492 

7.18 491 

7. 21 678 

7. 22 492 



494 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Cli. Ver. Isaiah 


No. 


Ch. Ver. Isaiah. 


No. 


Ch. Ver. 


Isaiah. 


So. 


7. 25 


. ... 493 


32. 20 


... 510 


53. 1... 




524 


8. 9 


318 

. ... 381 
509 


33. 12 


... 441 


54. 2 . 




474 


8. 16 


33. 15 


. . . 696 


54 16 




819 


8. 19 


33. 20 


... 474 


55. 1 .. 




526 


9. 6 


...1,502 

441! 

196 

.... 441 1 
.... 798 


34. 4 

36. 16 


... 511 

... 536 


55 12 




346 


9. 18 


56. 1 




696 


10. 15 


37. 16 

37. 27 


... 295 
... 452 


56. 11 . 

57. 5. . 




16 


10. 17 




194 


12. 3 


37.29 


... 512 


57.6... 




527 


14. 11 


.416,432 


37. 30 


... 172 


57. 9... 




712 


14. 19 


.... 869 


37. 33 


... 565 


58. 5... 




161 


15. 2 


.328, 494 


37. 38 


. . . 355 


58. 11.. 




426 


16. 10 


. .. 495 

..206, 678 
.... 496 


38. 8 


... 356 


59. 1 .. 

60. 4 . . 
60. 8 . 




528 


17. 6 


38. 12 


. . . 474 


529 


18. 2 


38. 17 


. . . 575 


530 


18. 3 


447 


38. 18 


. . 444 


60. 11 




531 


19. 8 


.... 497 


39. 7 


... 391 


61.3... 


486 


532 


19. 21 


851 


40. 3, 4 


... 513 


61.10 


486 


533 


20. 2 


261 


40. 11 


... 760 


62. 3.. 




488 


20. 2-4 


208 


40. 19 


.137, 516 


62. 6 .. 




283 


21. 5 


.498, 500 

283 


40. 20 

40. 22 


... 516 
474 


62. 8. . 






21. 5-12 


62. 10 


513 


534 


21. 13 


.... 69 
.... 499 


41 7 . . . 


516 


63. 2.. 
63. 3 . . 




690 


22. 1 


41. 15 


... 508 


690 


22.6 


500 


41. 16 


634 


63. 5 . . 




690 


22. 12 


.... 494 


41. 25.... 


.544. 616 


63. 6 . . 




869 


22. 15 




42. 3 , 


... 514 


65. 3.. 




194 


22. 16 


501 


42. 11 


186 


65. 4. . 




738 


22. 20, 21 


182 


43. 17 


514 


65. 6 . . 




760 


22. 22 


.... 502 


43. 28 


.... 717 


65. 11 




535 


22. 23 


.... 503 

.206, 504 


44. 3 

44. 10 


.... 515 
516 


66. 12. 
66. 17. 




529 


24. 13 




194 


24. 19, 20.... 


..481, 534 


44. 12 


.542, 819 


66. 20 . 




478 


24. 22 


.... 505 


44. 13 


. ... 516 








25. 6 


.... 506 

.... 869 


44. 18 


517 


Jeremiah. 
2. 13 




25. 10 


45. 3 


667 


536 


26. 3 


534 


45. 12 


. ... 388 


2. 20.. 




194 


27. 11 

28. 3 


507 


46. 1 


.518, 559 


9 22 




626 


869 


46. 7 


.... 519 


2. 23.. 




222 


28. 18 


869 


47. 1, 2 

47. 13 


706 

. ... 520 


2. 32.. 
2. 37.. 




486 


28. 27, 28.. 


.508, 634 


537 


29. 4 

29. 5 


.... 509 

634 


47 15 


16 


3. 2 . .. 




428 


49. 16 


. ... 521 


3. 6... 




194 


29. 11 


381 


49. 22 


.... 522 


3. 14 . . 




678 


30. 8 

30. 13 

30. 20 


750 

415 

510 


50 1 


331 


4. 11.. 




634 


50 2 


528 


4. 17.. 




481 


50. 6 


386 


4. 30.. 




. 342 


30. 22 


137 


51. 20 

52. 2 

52. 10 


289 

.... 523 
.... 524 


5. 26.. 

6. 6... 
6. 23.. 




428 


30. 24 


634 


565 


30. 28 


.... 609 


252 


30. 29 


290 


52. 15 


.... 525 


6. 26.. 




. 490 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



495 



Ch. Ver. Jkkkmiah. No. 

6. 29 538 

7.9 184 

7. 17, 18 304 

7. 29 494 

7. 31 163 

7.33.. 443 

7.34 539 

8. 2 189 

8. 17 439 

9. 2 540 

9. 14 222 

9. 17, 18 541 

9. 26 165 

10. 3 516, 542 

10. 4.... 516 

10. 18 256 

10. 20 474 

14. 3 68 

14. 4 278 

14. 8 540 

15. 7 634 

15. 12 594 

16. 4 443 

16. 6 166,494 

16.7,8 210 

16. 9 539 

17. 1 414, 750, 888 

17. 8 426 

17. 13 543 

18. 3 544 

19. 1 545 

19. 5 184, 330 

19. 7 443 

19. 10 546 

19.13 174 

19. 14 295 

20. 15 547 

22.13 333 

22. 14 333, 548 

22. 18 285 

22.24 79 

22.29 534 

25. 10.. 412, 539,638, 706 

25. 23 165 

25. 30 495 

26.2 295 

29. 2 391 

29.22 591 

31. 12 426 

31. 19 549 

32. 2 72 



Ch. Ver. Jeremiah. No. 

32. 9, 10 26 

32. 14 550 

32. 29 174 

32. 35 163 

33.4 565 

33. 11 539 

33. 13 176 

34. 5 367 

34. 18 551 

34.19 391 

34. 20 443 

35. 5 89 

36. 2 511 

36. 10 295 

36. 18 552 

36. 22 553, 604 

36. 23 511 

36. 29 511 

36. 30 443 

37. 15 72 

37.21 16 

38. 6 68 

38. 7 199, 391 

39. 3 391, 630 

39. 7 360 

39. 13 71, 630 

41. 5 494 

41. 8 554 

43. 10 474 

44.17-19 304 

44. 25 851 

46. 4 251, 555 

46. 22 556 

46. 25 557 

47. 5 494 

45. 7 183 

48. 11 558 

43. 13 183 

48. 33 495 

48. 36 290 

48. 37 166, 494 

48. 46 183 

49.32 165 

50.2 559 

50. 15 560 

50. 35 630 

50.42 252 

51.2 634 

51. 3 555 

51. 20 561 

51. 31 407 



Ch. Ver. Jeremiah. No. 

51.44 559 

52. 4 565 

52. 11 360 

52. 25 391 

52. 28-30 352 

Lamentations. 

1. 15 869 

2. 10 279, 490 

2. 15 577 

2. 19 121 

2. 22 751 

3. 28 490 

3. 34 869 

4. 2 32 

5. 5 95 

5. 6 560 

5. 12 562 

5. 13 235 

5. 14 : 199 

Ezekiel. 
1. 1 838 

1. 4-11 142 

2. 9 511 

2. 10 563 

3.1,2 511 

4.1 564 

4.2 ... 565 

4. 3 155 

4. 7 524 

6. 4 174 

6. 6 174 

6. 11 577 

6. 13 194 

8. 10 566 

8. 14 567 

8. 16 568 

8. 17 559 

9. 2 570 

9.4 571 

12. 5 415 

12. 13 598 

13. 10 572 

13. 18 573 

16. 4 574, 751 

16. 11 35, 476 

16.12 35 

16. 21 163 

17. 17 565 



496 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Ch. Ver. Ezekikl. No. 

17. 18 461 

17. 20 598 

19.4 575 

19. 8 598 

19. 11 576 

20.6-8 138 

20. 28 194 

20.31 163 

20. 37 176 

21. 12 549 

21. 14 577 

21. 21 578 

21. 22 565 

21.27 534 

22. 13 577 

22. 28 572 

23. 12 579 

23. 14 580 

23. 24 251 

23. 25 581 

23. 40 342 

23. 41 712 

23. 42 35 

24. 17.. 208, 210,486,612 

24.22 612 

24. 23 486 

25.6 577 

26. 8 565 

26. 9 565 

26. 20 444 

27. 10 251 

27. 20 579 

27. 30 279 

28. 8 444 

29. 4 512 

31.3,4 426 

31. 14 444 

32. 3 598 

32. 14 418 

32. 18 444 

32. 27 582 

33. 2 283 

33. 6 283 

33. 7 283 

37. 20 583 

38. 4 512 

38. 5 251 

39. 15 359 

40 295 

40. 5 134 

41. 7 295 



Ch. Ver. Ezekikl. No. 

41. 8 134 

44. 31 168 

45. 10 584 

45. 12 585 

45. 14 586 

46. 21 295 

Daniel. 

1. 2 587 

1. 5 588 

1. 6, 7 371 

1. 20 76 

2. 2 76. 520, 630 

2. 5 589 

2. 14 7.1, 287 

2. 27 630 

2.35 634 

2. 48 630 

3. 4 866 

3. 5 365, 590 

3. 6 591 

3. 7 365, 590 

3. 10 365, 590 

3. 15 365, 590 

3. 20 592 

3. 21 593 

3. 29 71. 589 

4. 9 630 

4. 29 275 

5. 2 390 

5. 4 594 

5. 7 476 

5. 11 630 

5. 16 476 

5. 29 93, 476 

6. 8 596 

6. 10 228, 333, 595 

6.12 596 

6. 15 596 

6. 17 735 

7. 9 472 

8. 2 838 

8. 13 869 

9. 21 595 

10. 3 . 429 

10. 4 838 

12. 1 876 

12.4 381 

12.7 5 

12.9 381 



HOSEA. 
Ch. Ver. No. 

2.7 222 

2.8 184 

2. 13 66 

3.1 477 

3.4 60 

4. 12 597 

4. 13 194 

5.8 447 

5.10 197 

6. 2 678 

7. 12 598 

9.4 210 

9. 8 445 

10. 5 621 

10. 11 207 

11. 4 599 

13. 2 427 

13. 3 600, 634 

14. 6 436 

Joel. 

2. 1 447 

3. 10 482 

Amos. 

1. 3 508 

2. 2 447 

2. 6 601 

2. 8 602 

2. 16. 261 

3. 5 445 

3. 12 603 

3. 15 604 

5. 12 199 

5. 16 541 

5. 23 432 

5.26 163, 605 

6. 4 606 

6. 5 432 

6. 10 367 

6. 12 607 

7. 14 326, 608 

8.5 335 

8. 6 601 

9. 9 609 

9. 11 319 

9. 13 690 

Obadiah. 
7 435 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



497 



Ch. Ver. 

1.5.. 


Jonah 


No. 

... 610 


1. 7.. 

1. 16. 




463, 611 
... 851 


2. 4.. 




... 595 


4. 5.. 




... 319 


1. 10. 


Micah 


... 490 


1. 16. 




... 494 


3. 3.. 




... 71 


3.7.. 




... 612 


4. 3. . 




... 482 


4. 4.. 




... 613 


4. 5 .. 




... 319 


5. 1 .. 






6. 7 .. 




... 330 


6. 8.. 




... 696 


6. 11. 




... 209 


6. 15. 

7. 10. 




.213,429 
... 869 


7. 14. 




... 256 


1. 10 

1. 14. 


Nahum. 
441, 614 


1. 15 . 




... 851 


2. 3.. 




... 615 


2. 4.. 




... 615 


3. 8.. 




... 557 


3. 14. 




616 


1. 15 . 

1. 16 

2. 1.. 


Habakkuk. 

497, 668 

...497, 617, 668 
283 


2.2.. 




... 750 


2. 4.. 




... 696 


2.11 

2. 18. . 




... 618 
137 


2. 19. 




... 137 


2. 20 

3. 9.. 




.... 619 
. . . 620 


3. 13. 




346 


1. 4.. 


Zephaniah. 


1. 5.. 

1. 12. 




.174, 304 
.558. 638 



Haggai. 

Ch. Ver. No. 

1.4 548 

2.23 79 

Zechaeiah. 

I. 7 622 

3. 4 487 

3. 10 613 

5.1,2 511 

8.16 199 

9. 7 192 

9. 11 68 

10. 8 491 

II. 12 26, 713 

11.13 713 

12.3 623 

12.11 337 

12. 12 624 

13.4 632 

13. 6 166 

14. 9 7 

14.20 625 

Malachi. 

3. 1 866 

3. 2 626 

3. 16 627 

4.3 628,869 

Matthew. 

1. 18 629 

2. 1 630 

2.2 631 

2. 11 64 

3. 3 513 

3. 4 ..314, 632 

3.11 633 

3. 12 634 

4. 4 647 

4. 5 635 

4. 23 636 

5.1 757 

5. 13 637 

5. 15 638 

5. 17 834 

5. 18 639 

5.25 640 

5. 26 742 

5. 33 641 

5. 34 641 

5. 34-36 .- 641 



Ch. Ver. 



Mi 



No. 



5. 40 205, 821 

5.41 642 

5.46,47 759 

6. 2 643 

6. 3 644 

6. 7 645 

6. 16 783 

6. 17 429 

6. 19 415,417 

6. 30 646 

7.9 647 

7. 24 761 

7. 29 648 

8.12 412 

9. 2 649 

9. 6 649 

9. 9 759 

9. 10 712, 759 

9. 11 759 

9. 14 783 

9. 15 650 

9.17 651 

9. 20 652 

9. 23 290, 541 

10. 9 653 

10. 10... 256, 654, 821 

10. 12, 13 767,823 

10. 14 655 

10. 17 656 

10. 25 324 

10.27 657 

10. 29 658 

11.16,17 659 

11.19 759 

11.28-30 599 

11.42 661 

12. 1 660 

12.24 324 

12. 41 661 

12.42 661 

13.2 662 

13.3 663 

13.4 664 

13. 25 665 

13. 33 11, 666 

13. 38 650 

13. 44 667 

13. 47 668 

13. 54 636 

14. 6 75 

14. 7 669 



•198 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Ch. Ver. Matthk-w. No. I Ch. Ver. 

14. 19 670 22. 23 



No. 

695 



14. 20 671 

14. 25 743 



14. 36 


205 


15.3 


672 


15. 5 


740 


15. 26, 27. . 


782 


15. 36 


670 


15. 37 


671 


16. 6 


694 


16. 9. 10 


671 


16. 18 


199 


16. 19 


..502, 67a 


16. 21 


...717, 868 


17. 2 


472 


17.4 


464 


17. 23 


868 


17. 24 .... 


674 


17. 27.... 


675 


18. 6 


676 


18. 12... 


677 


18. 17 


...759. 802 


18. 20.... 


678 


18. 25 


331 


18. 28 


640 


18. 34.... 


679 


19. 13... 


680 


19. 24.... 


681 


20. 1 


682 


20. 2 


683 


20. 3 


..684, 806 


20. 5 


-806 


20. 6 


806 


20. 8 


..685, 781 


20. 9 


806 


20. 19 


868 


20. 21.... 


686 


21. 7 


....21, 205 


21.8 




21. 12.... 


688 


21. 13 


636 


21. 15 


689 


21. 23 


717 


21. 31, 32.. 


759 


21. 33... 


690 


22. 3 


691 


22. 11 .... 


692 


22. 13 


412 


22. 15.... 


693 


22. 16.... 


694 


22. 19-21.. 


683 



22. 35 648 

22.40 696 

23.2 757 

23. 3 693 

23. 5 652, 697 

23. 6 777, 698 

23. 7 699, 842 

23. 14 700 

23.24 701 

23. 27 702 

23. 29 703 

23. 34 656 

24. 1 704 

24. 17 705 

24. 18 205 

24. 20 824 

24. 41 706 

24. 43 415, 743 

24. 51 883 

25. 1 707 

25. 3, 4 708 

25. 10 709 

25. 15 140 

25. 18 667 

25. 32 710 

25. 33 711 

26. 7 712 

26. 12 822 

26. 15 713 

26. 17 714 

26. 19 715 

26. 20 712, 716 

26. 23 746 

26. 30 716 

26.47 717 

26. 55 757 

26. 59 718 

26. 67 719, 788 

26. 68 788 

26. 69 720 

26.71 721 



Ch. Ver. Matthew. 

27.26 

27. 27 

27. 28 

27. 29 

27. 30 

27. 31... 205, 726, 

27. 33 

27. 34 241, 

27. 35 463, 

27. 36 

27. 37 

27. 41 

27. 45 

27. 46 •. 

27. 48 

27. 51 704, 

27. 54 

27. 59 

27. 60 

27. 61 

27. 66 

28. 1 

28. 2 

28. 3 



No. 

724 
725 
726 

864 

719 

727 

728 

729 

730 

731 

732 

717 

806 

806 

241 

733 

731 

822 

734 

811 

735 

811 

734 

472 



27. 1. 
27. 3. 



717 

713 

27. 5 713 

27. 6 713 

27. 9 713 

27. 11 722 

27. 12 717 

27. 15 723 

27. 24 431 



Mark. 

1. 3 513 

1.6 632 

1. 7 791, 832 



648 
636 
649 
736 
649 
759 
2. 15, 16 759 



1. 22.. 

1. 39 . . 

2. 3, 4. 
2. 4... 
2. 9-12 
2. 14.. 



2. 19... 
2. 22 

2. 23 

3. 6 

3. 17 

3. 22 

4. 1 

4. 3 

4. 4 

4. 21... 

4. 38... 

5. 2, 3 . 
5. 22 ... 
5. 35, 36, 



650 
651 
660 
694 
650 
324 
662 
663 
664 
638 
737 
738 
834 
834 



5. 38.. ." 541, 834 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



499 



Ch. Ver. Mark. No. 

6. 2 636 

6. 8 256. 653 

6. 9 654, 821 

6. 11 655 

6. 21 75 

6. 23 669 

6. 41 670 

6. 43 671 

6. 48 743 

6. 56 652 

7. 3 739 

7. 4 712 

7. 5-13 648 

7. 9 672 

7. 11 740 

7. 28 782 

8. 6, 7 670 

8. 8 671 

8. 15 694 

8. 19, 20 671 

9. 31 868 

9. 42 676 

10. 13 680 

10. 16 680 

10.25 681 

10. 34 868 

10. 37 686 

11. 8 687 

11.15 688 

11. 25 741 

12. 1 690 

12. 13 694 

12. 15-17 683 

12. 38 842 

12. 39. 698, 777 

12. 40 700 

12.41... 704 

12. 42 704, 742 

13. 1 704 

13. 9.. 656 

13. 15 705 

13. 35 743 

14. 3 712 

14. 8 822 

14.12 714 

14. 13 332, 744 

14. 14, 15 745 

14.15 333 

14. 16 715 

14. 17 716 

14. 18 712 



Ch. Ver. Mark. No. 

14. 20 746 

14. 26 716 

14.51,52 261 

14. 62 686 

14. 65 719, 788 

14. 66 720 

14. 68 721 

15. 1 717 

15. 6 723 

15. 15 724 

15. 16 725 

15. 17 726, 864 

15. 19.. 719 

15. 20 727 

15. 22 728 

15. 23 729 

15. 24 463 

15. 25 730, 806 

15. 26 732 

15. 31 717 

15. 33 806 

15. 34 806 

15. 38 733 

15. 43 747 

15. 46 734, 822 

16.1 822 

16. 3, 4 734 

16. 5 472 

16. 14 712 

16. 19 686 

Luke. 

1. 5 717, 748 

1. 15 851 

1. 59 749 

1. 63 750 

2. 7 751 

2.12 751 

2. 16 751 

2.21 749 

2.25 752 

2. 44 69, 315 

2. 44, 45.. 753 

2. 46 648, 704. 754 

3.4 513 

3.11 821 

3. 16 791, 832 

3. 17 634 

4.4 647 

4.9 635 

4. 15...., 636 



Cli. Ver. Lukb. No. 

4. 16 755 

4. 16-22 636 

4. 17 511, 756 

4. 20 511, 757 

4. 44 636 

5. 4 668 

5. 5 758 

5. 17 648 

5. 18 649 

5. 19 736 

5. 27 759 

5. 34 650 

5. 37 651 

6. 1 660 

6. 22 802 

6. 29 821 

6. 38 760 

6. 48 761 

7. 3 834 

7. 5 762 

7. 12 763 

7. 14 764 

7. 30 648 

7. 31 659 

7. 32 290, 659 

7.34 759 

7. 36-38 712 

7. 38 765 

7. 44 10 

7. 45 765 

7.46 429 

8. 5 663, 664 

8. 16 638 

8. 27 738 

8. 41 834 

8. 44 652 

8. 49 834 

9. 3 256, 821 

9.5 655 

9. 16 670 

9.17 671 

9. 22 868 

9.62 766 

10.4.256,653,654,767 

10. 7 768 

10. 20 876 

10.29 769 

10. 31, 32 128 

10. 34 751, 770 

10. 35 751 

10. 39 852 



500 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Ch. Ver. LrKB. No. 

11. 5, 6 771 

11. 7 772 

11. 11 647 

11.15 324 

11. 18, 19 324 

11. 31 661 

11. 32 661 

11. 33 638 

11. 43 698, 842 

11. 44 359, 773 

11. 45 648 

11. 52 648 

12. 3 657 

12.6 658 

12.18 81 

12. 28 646 

12. 33 774 

12. 38 743 

12.42 781 

12.46 883 

12. 58 640 

12. 59 742 

13.6 775 

13. 14 834 

13. 15 751 

13 21 666 

13.24,25 709 

13. 32 868 

14. 1 776 

14. 3 648 

14. 7 777 

14. 9, 10 778 

14. 10 692 

14. 16, 17 691 

14. 34, 35 637 

15. 1 759 

15. 4 677 

15. 7 677 

15.8 683 

15. 12 779 

15. 15 780 

15. 20 53 

15.22 654 

16. 1 781 

16. 6 584 

16. 7 " 586 

16. 8 650 

16. 17 639 

16. 21 782 

16. 22, 23 814 

16. 29 834 



Ch. Ver. Lt/kb. No. 

17. 2 676 

17. 31 705 

17. 35 706 

18. 11 741 

18. 12 783 

18. 13 741, 784 

18. 15 680 

18.25 681 

18. 33 868 

19. 2 759 

19. 13 785 

19. 20 263 

19. 36 687 

19. 45 688 

20. 9 690 

20. 42 686 

20. 46 698, 777, 842 

20.47 699 

21.1 704 

21. 2 704, 742 

21. 5 704, 786 

21.24 869 

22.4 787 

22. 9 714 

22. 10.... 332, 661, 744 

22. 11 745 

22. 12 333, 745 

22. 13 715 

22. 14 716 

22.31 609 

22. 35, 36 256 

22. 55 720 

22. 64 788 

22. 66 717 

22.69 ... 686 

23. 16 724 

23. 17 723 

23. 26 727 

23. 33 728. 730 

23. 36 241,729 

23. 38 732 

23. 44 806 

23. 45 733 

23.50 747 

23. 51 747 

23. 53 734, 822 

23. 56 822 

24. 2 734 

24. 4 472, 748 

24. 7 868 

24. 13 809 



Ch. Ver. Lurk. No. 

24. 21 868 

24. 44 789 

24. 46 868 

24. 50 790 

John. 

1. 18 814 

1. 23 513 

1. 27 791 

1. 38 699 

1. 39 806 

1. 48 613 

2. 6 792 

2. 14 688 

2. 8 793 

3.29 794 

3. 30 794 

3. 33 797 

4. 6 806 

4. 9 800 

4. 11 795 

4. 27 796 

4.52 806 

5.8,9 649 

5. 11, 12 649 

6.11 670 

6. 13 671 

6. 19 809 

6. 27 797 

7. 37 798 

7.38,39 798 

8.2 757 

8. 6 543 

8.8 543 

8. 20 704 

8. 36 799 

8. 44 1 

8. 48 800 

8. 57 801 

9.22 802 

9. 34 802 

10. 1 803 

10. 3-5 804 

10. 22 805 

10. 23 .. 704 

11. 9 806 

11. 16 807 

11. 17 808, 826 

11. 18 809 

11. 19 810 

11. 31 811 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



501 



Ch. Ver. John. No. 

11. 38 734 

11. 39.... 734, 808, 826 

11.44 822 

11.55 129 

12. 2 712 

12. 3 712, 812 

12.6 774 

12. 7 822 

12. 13 687, 891 

12.42 802 

13. 4 205 

13. 4-15 10 

13. 10 813 

13. 12 205 

13. 18 435 

13. 23 814, 815 

13. 24 458 

13. 25 814 

13. 26 815 

13. 29 774 

14. 6 797 

14. 27 823 

16. 2 802 

18. 1 816 

18. 3 817 

18. 16 720 

18. 17 818 

18. 18 ...720, 819 

18. 20 636 

18. 22 719 

18. 39 723 

19. 1 724 

19. 2 726, 864 

19. 3 719 

19. 5 864 

19. 14 806 

19. 16 727 

19. 17 728, 820 

19. 18 730 

19 19. . 732 

19.23.148,730.731.821 

19. 24 730 

19. 29, 30 241 

19. 40 822 

19.41,42 734 

20.5-7 822 

20. 7 822 

20. 12 472, 501 

20. 16 699 

20. 19 823 

21. 3 758 



Ch. Ver. John. No. 

21.6 668 

21. 7 261 

21. 9 819 

21. 20 814 

Acts. 

1. 10 472 

1. 12 824 

1. 13 333 

1. 26 463 

2. 15 825 

2. 15 595, 806 

2. 29 292 

2. 34 686 

2.46 704 

3. 1 595, 806 

3.2 704 

3. 10 704 

3. 11 704 

4.1 787 

4. 1-21 718 

4. 6 695 

4. 36 650 

5. 6 822, 826 

5. 10 826 

5. 12 704 

5. 15 649 

5. 17 695 

5. 17-42 718 

5. 26 787 

5. 34 648 

6. 12-15 718 

7.39,40 138 

7. 43 163, 605 

7. 55. 56 661, 686 

7. 58 205, 727 

8. 9 630 

8. 28 827 

9. 1, 2 718 

9. 5 225 

9. 25 871 

9. 36 828 

9. 37 333 

9. 39 333, 821 

10. 1 725 

10. 3 806 

10. 9.... 595, 806, 829 

12.4 830 

12. 6 830, 831 

12.8 832 

12. 10..., 830 



Ch. Ver. Acts. No. 

12. 13 818, 833 

12. 17 854 

12. -20-23 848 

13. 5 636 

13. 6 630 

13. 8 630 

13. 15 636, 834 

13.16 854 

13. 25 791 

13. 51 655 

14. 1 636 

14. 11 835 

14. 12 836 

14. 13 837 

16. 13 838 

16. 24 839 

16. 25 806 

16. 27 840 

16.33 806 

16. 37 841 

16. 38 841 

17. 10, 11 636 

17. 17 636,842 

17. 18 843 

18. 3 844 

18. 6 380 

18. 8 834 

18.17 834 

18. 18 851 

18. 19 636 

19. 19 683, 845 

19. 24 846 

19. 27 847 

19. 29 848 

19. 31 849 

19. 34 645 

19. 35 527, 850 

20. 7, 8 333 

20. 9 228 

20. 24 884 

20. 33 417 

20. 37 53 

21. 23,24 851 

21. 26 851 

21. 28 704 

21. 31 725 

21.33 831 

22.3 852 

22. 5 718 

22. 19 656 

22. 20 205 



502 



BIBLK MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Ch. Ver. Acts. 

22. 23 205. 

22. 25 

22. 30 

23. 3 

23. 8 

23. 23 

25. 11, 12 

26. 1 

26. 6 

26. 14 

27. 1 

27. 9 

27. 16 

27. 17 

27. 29 

27. 40 

28.11 

28. 16 

28. 20 



N-o. 

280 
841 
718 
572 
695 
806 
853 
854 
722 
ft 26 



725 

161 

855 

856 

857 

858 

859 

831 

831 



KOMANS. 

4. 12 1 

7. 24 860 

8. 15 861 

8. 23 861 

8.34 686 

16. 16.. 862 

16. 20 869 

I Corinthians. 

3. 9-17 847 

4. 9 863 

8. 10 156 

9. 9 207 

9. 24 879, 884 

9. 25 864 

9. 26 865, 879 



Ch. Ver. II Corinthians. 

2. 15. 16 

3. 3..' 552, 

3. 18 

5. 1 

11. 24 

11. 25 

11.33 

13. 12 



No. 

870 
750 
139 
474 
656 
724 
871 
862 



I Timothy. 

Ch. Ver. No. 

2. 8 431 

2. 9 417, 886 

3. 15 49, 387 

5. 10 10 

6. 12 884 



Galatian: 

1. 14 

2. 9 

3. 24 

4. 2 

4. 5, 6 

6.17 



Ephesians. 



648 
387 

872 
781 
861 

873 



II Timothy. 

2. 3 877 

2. 4 878 

2.5 .864,879 

2. 19 880 

4. 7 884 

4. 8 864 

4. 13 511, 881 



1. 13... 

1. 17 ... 
20... 

2 

3 

14... 
19-22 
30... 

6. 14. . . 

6. 15... 

6. 16... 



251 



Philippians. 
3. 13,14 



9. 27 


866 


10. 16 


670 


11. 15 


886 


11.21 

13. 1 


889 
456 


13. 12 

15. 4.. 


867 
868 


15. 25 869 

16. 20 862 

II Corinthians. 
1. 3 


]. 22 


797 


2. 14 


870 



4.3. 

4. 18 



j 2. 14 

I 2. 15 
3. 1.. 
3. 6. 



COLOSSIANS. 



797 
1 
686 
650 
650 
704 
847 
797 
, 318 
874 
875 



884 
876 
152 



552 
870 
686 
650 



Hebrews. 



1. 3.. 
1. 9 . 
1. 13. 
8. 1.. 



I Thessalonians. 



o. o. . 
5. 26. 



251 
862 



II Thessalonians. 

2. 3 650 

3. 1 884 



686 

429 

686 

686 

9.3,4 142, 882 

9.13,14 181 

9. 19 437 

10. 12 686 

10. 29 869 

11. 37 883 

11. 38 18 

12. 1 884 

12. 2 686, 884 

12. 4 865 

13. 12 727 

13. 20 887 

James. 
1. 12 864 

1. 23 139, 867 

2. 2, 3 698 

4. 13 885 

5.2 417 

I Peter. 

3. 3 886 

3. 22 686 

5. 4 864, 887 

5. 14 862 

II Peter. 

1. 13. 14 474 



TEXTUAL INDEX. 



503 



II John. 

Ch. Ver. No. 

12 552 

III John. 

13 552, 888 

JlTDE. 

12 889 

Revelation. 

1. 18 502 

2. 5 638 

2. 10 864 

2.17 148 

3. 5 876 

3. 7 502 

3. 11 864 

4.8-11 259 

5. 1 511, 563 

5. 4 381 



Ch. Ver. Revelation. No. 

5. 9 381 

5. 9-14 259 

6. 6 890 

6.12 70 

7. 2 797 

7.3 571 

7. 9 891 

7. 13 472 

9. 1 502 

9. 4 571 

10. 4 381 

10.5,6 5 

11.10 384 

13. 8 876 

13. 16 212, 571 

13. 17 571 

14. 1 571 

14.9 212,571 

14. 20 809 

16. 15 892 

31 



Ch. Ver. Revbiation. No. 

17. 5 571 

17. 8 876 

18. 13 712 

18.19 279 

18.22 706 

18. 23 539 

19. 12 893 

19. 13 205 

19. 14 472 

19.20 212 

20. 1 502 

20. 4 212,571 

20. 15 876 

21.2 533 

21. 14 880 

21.16 809 

21. 25 531 

21.27 876 

22. 4 571 

22. 10 381 



504 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



III. TOPICAL INDEX, 



Abib. The month, 193. 
Adar, The month, 376. 
Adoption. 861. 
Adrammelech, 351. 
Adversary, Agreeing with, 640. 
Alabastra, 712. 

Alighting, a mark of respect, 38. 
Almsgiving, 643, 644. 
Altar of Burnt-offering, 145. 

of Incense, 144. 
Ambush, near wells, 227. 
Amen, Use of, 364. 
Ammon, 557. 
Amphora, 332. 

Amulets, Ear-rings used as, 66, 486. 
Anammelech, 351. 
Anchors, 857. 
Animals cut in two, 551. 

petted. 276. 
Anklets, 483. 
Anointing, an act of hospitality, 429. 

of kings, 346. 
Apparel, Changeable suits of, 487. 
Appeal to Cesar, 853. 
Applications, External, 457. 
Ark of bulrushes, 103. 

of covenant, 142. 
Arm, Leaning on, 337. 

made bare, 524. 
Armlet, 267. 
Arms, Everlasting, 214. 
Arrow, War declared by throwing, 349. 
Arrows, 348. 

Divination by, 578. 

Poisoned, 405. 
Asheroth, 222. 
Ashes, scattered, 115. 

trodden, 628. 
Ashimy, 351. 
Ashtaroth, 304. 
Ashtoreth, 304. 
Asiarchcb, 849. 
Ass-driver, 334. 
Ass, fallen under burden, 128. 



Assemblies on new moon and Sab- 
bath, 335. 
Asses, Use of white, 226. 
Astrologers, 520. 

in connection with coronations, 
631. 
Atonement, Great day of, 161. 
Ax, (garzen,) 196. 

(kardon.) 556. 

(maatsad,) 542. 

Baal, 184. 
Baal-berith, 232. 
Baalim, 222. 
Baal-peor, 185. 
Baal-zebub, 324. 
Bags, Money, 774. 
Baldness, 328. 
Batista, 370. 
Bands of soldiers, 725. 
Banks, 565. 
Banquets, Royal, 396. 
Barefoot, a sign of distress or re- 
proach, 208. 
Bargains, Mode of making, 24. 
Barrel, 308. 
Baskets, 671, 871. 
Bath, 584. 

in courtyard, 275. 
Bathing, by effusion, 515. 

of Pharaoh's daughter, 104. 
Battering-rams, 565. 
Battle-ax, 561. 
Battlements on roof, 201. 
Beard, a symbol of manhood, 273. 

touched, 288. 
"Beauty for ashes," 532. 
Bed, 649. 

elevated, 325. 
Bedchamber, 345. 
Beds, Cold and silver, 388. 

of ivory, 606. 
Bedsteads, 188. 
Beheading: of enemies, 343. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



505 



Bel, 559. 

Bellows, 538. 

Bells, on horses, 625. 

Benediction, Priestly, 790. 

Betrothal and marriage, 233, 629. 

Bier, 269, 764. 

Binding and loosing, 673. 

Birth of son, Rejoicings over, 547. 

Birthday-feast. King's, 75. 

Birthright, 41. 

Blessing at meals, 670. 

Blindfolding in sport, 788. 

Blinding as a punishment, 360. 

Blood, Eating, prohibited, 192. 

Egyptian abhorrence for, 113. 
Boat: skiff, 855. 
Bonnet of priest, 148. 
Bonnets, 486. 
Book of life, 876. 

of remembrance, 627. 
Books, 414. 

of magic, 845. 

for reading in the synagogue, 756. 
Borders of garments, 652. 
Bosom, 760. 

Leaning on, 814. 
Bosses of bnckler, 410. 
Bottle, Broken, an emblem of destitu- 
tion, 546. 

in the smoke, 450. 
Bottles, Earthenware, 545. 

Skin, 651. 

Skin, how repaired, 218. 
Bow, "Naked," 620. 
Bowing, 9. 
Bows, for arrows, 348. 

for stones, 363. 
Box of oil, 341. 
Boxing, 865. 
Bracelet, (etsadah.) 267. 
Bracelets, (sheroih,) 485. 

(tsemedim.) 35. 
Branch, put to the nose, 569. 
Brass, 594. 
Bread, 11. 
Bread, cast on the waters, 473. 

resembling stone, 647. 

the principal food, 85. 
Breastplate, Military, 251. 

of high-priest. 148. 
Bricks, Babylonian, 2. 

Egyptian, 109. 



Bride, chosen by parents, 30. 
Bridegroom, Meeting the, 707. 
Brigandines, 555. 
Brother, Use of the term, 4. 
Buckler, (magen.) 302. 

(tsinnak,) 253. 
Bui, The month, 297. 
Bulwarks, 565. 
Burial in the city, 292. 

on the day of death, 826. 

outside of cities, 763. 

without coffin, 350. 
Burials, Large concourse at, 763. 
Burning alive, 591. 

for the dead, 367. 
Burnt-offerings, 151. 
Bushel, 638. 

Butler. (See Cup-bearer.) 
Butter, 13. 
Butter and honey, 492. 

Cab. 338. 
Cakes, 11. 

of raisins, 477. 
Calf, Molten, how made, 137. 

worship, 138. 
Camels' hair raiment, 632. 
Camels kneeling, 31. 
Candle. (See Lamp.) 
Candlestick. (See Lampstand.) 

Golden, 143. 
Captain of the guard, 71. 
Captains. Chariot, 120. 

Levitical, 787. 
-Captivity' 1 (figurative,) 423. 
Caravan, 69. 
Catapults, 370. 
Cataracta, 430. 
Cauls, 484. 

Cavalry. Egyptian, 122. 
Caves, (for buriaL) 28. 

(for dwellings,) 18. 
Censer, Golden, 882. 
Chain of gold, 79. 
Chains, 485. 
Chamber on the wall, 333. 

over the gate, 284. 
Chamberlains, 391. 
Chambers of imagery, 566. 
Chariot, {Litter.) 478* 

Second, 80. 
Chariots, Assyrian. 615. 



506 



BIBLE MANNERS AXD CUSTOMS. 



Chariots, War, 119. 

Charmer, 195. 

Cheese, 254. 

Chemarim, 621. 

Chemosh, 183. 

Cherethites, 287. 

Cherubim. 142. 

" Chief of Asia," 849. 

Children, brought to be blessed, 680. 

in the temple, 689. 

Modes of carrying, 522, 529. 

Oriental use of the term, 650. 

piping and mourning, 659. 

sleeping with parents, 772. 
Chimney, 600. 
Chisleu, The month, 377. 
Chiun, 605. 
Churning, 471. 
Cisterns, 536. 
Cities, "built, 1 ' 366. 

of the giants, 187. 
Citizen, Rights of a Roman, 841. 
Clay, trodden. 616. 
Cloak, 881. 
Cloths, Mixed, forbidden, 203. 

Valuables wrapped in, 263. 
Clothes, rent, 70. 

Swaddling, 751. 

washed before worship, 126. 
Coat of mail, 251. 
" Coat of many colors," 67. 
Coat, Seamless, 821. 
Coats. 593. 
Coffins, 102. 

Commandments, Compendium of, 696. 
Condolence, Visits of, 810. 
"Consolation of Israel," 752. 
Consulter with familiar spirits, 195. 
Cooking, Haste in, 12. 
Cor, 586. 
Cor ban, 740. 
Corn, beaten out, 242. 

free to the hungry, 660. 

Parched, 241. 
Corner, the place of honor, 603. 
"Corners" of heads and beards, 165. 
Corner-stones, 454. 
Cornet, (keren,) 365. 

(menaaneim,) 272. 

(shophar,) 447. 
Coronation, 346. 
Corpses, devoured by birds, 443. 



Council, Jewish, (see Sanhedrim.) 

Roman, 853. 
Counselor, 747. 
Courts of houses, 387, 720. 
Covenant of salt, 150. 
Cracknels, 305. 
Crisping pins, 487. 
Cross, carried by the condemned, 820. 
Crown of leaves, 864. 
Crowns. 346. 

" Many," 893. 

on horses, 397. 
Crucifixion, Mode of, 730. 

Place of. 727. 
Crumbs given to dogs, 782. 
Cruse, (tsappachath.) 266. 

(tselochith.) 327. 
Cubit, Length of, 134. 
Cuirass, 251. 
Cupbearer, 378. 
Cups, Divining, 90. 

Drinking, 89. 
Curses on relatives, 262. 
Cutting in pieces, 589. 
Cuttings in flesh, (idolatry,) 310. 

in flesh, (mourning,) 166. 
Cylinders, Clay, 564. 
Cymbals, 456. 

Dagon, 236. 

Dances, Hebrew, 123. 

Dancers, Rewards given to, 669. 

Daric, 373. 

Darkness, Oriental ideas of, 412. 

Darts, "Fiery," 875. 

Daughter, Oriental use of the term, 

650. 
Day, how divided, 806. 

how reckoned, 868. 
Day's journey. 315. 

journey. First, very short, 753. 

journey, Sabbath, 824. 
Days, Four, after death, 808. 
Death, Condemnation to, 398. 
Debt. Men sold for, 331. 
Debtor, arrested by creditor, 640. 
Dedication, Feast of, 805. 

of a new house, 198. 
Deeds of land buried, 550. 
Denarius, 683. 
Deportation, 352. 
; Devils, Sacrificing unto, 162. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



507 



Diadem of high priest, 148. 

Diana, The goddess, 850. 

Dining, Egyptian mode of, 88. 

Dinner-beds, 712. 

Disaster, Occasion of, 61 1. 

Dishonesty, Pharisaic, 700. 

Divan, 325. 

Divination, 195. 

Division of sheep and goats, 710. 

Doctors, in the temple, 754. 

Door, shut, 709. 

Doorkeepers, 818. 

"Door of the gate," 833. 

Dough, 118. 

Dove-cotes, 530. 

Doves, sold in the temple, 688. 

Dowry, given by the bridegroom, 56. 

Drams, of gold, 373. 

Drawers of priest, 148. 

Dress of priests, 148. 

Rich and splendid, 36. 
Drink, for the condemned, 729. 
Drink-offerings, 169. 
Drinking, Laws of, 389. 
Drowning, Punishment by, 676. 
Drunkenness of the Assyrians, 614. 
Dulcimer, 590. 
Dust, Rising from the, 523. 

shaken from the feet, 655. 

thrown, 280. 

Ear-ring, (nezem,) 66. 
Ear-rings, (lechashim,) 486. 

(netiphotk,) 485. 
Ears opened, 434. 
Eating, Mode of, 746. 
"Elders of the people," 717. 
Elul, The month, 382. 
Embalming, Egyptian mode, 98. 

Jewish mode, 822. 
Enchanter, 195. 

Enemies, trampled on, 220, 869. 
Engines of war, 370. 
Ensigns, 177. 
Ephah, 125. 

Ephod of high-priest, 148. 
Epicureans, 843. 
Espousal, 629. 
Ethanim, The month, 299. 
Eunuchs, 391. 

Excommunication, Jewish, 802. 
Execution, Special place for. 728. 



Exhibitions, Gladiatorial, 863. 
Exhortations to buy, 526. 
"Eye of a needle, "* 681. 
Eyes, closed in death 94. 

"lifted up," 38. 

Painting the, 342. 

temporarily blinded, 517. 

Face, between the knees, 313. 

covered, 316, 399. 

whither turned in worship, 568. 
Fan, for winnowing, 634. 
Farthing, (assarioji,) 65S. 

(quadrans,) 742. 
Fasting, 783. 

Father, Use of the term, I. 
Feast of Dedication, 805. 

of Harvest, 131. 

of Passover. 130. 

of Tabernacles, 131. 

of Trumpets, 170. 
Feasts, Covenant, 45. 

Idolatrous, in temples, 602. 

Mourning, 210. 
"Feasts of charity," 889. 
Feasts on Sabbath, 776. 

Places at, changed, 778. 

Preparation for, 129. 

Separate, for women, 390. 

Time of, how ascertained, 129. 

Visitors at, how accommodated, 
132. 
Feed for cattle, 293. 
Feet, "Brought up at," 852. 

kissed, 765. 

Signs made by, 458. 

washed after bathing, 813. 

"Washing the. 1 0. 
Fenced cities, 366. 
Ferry-boat, 286. 
Fetters, 360. 
"Fifty years old," 801. 
Fig-trees planted in vineyards, 775. 
Fingers, Signs made by, 458. 
Fire in harvest-field, 127. 
Fire-wood, gathered by women, 507 
Firkin, 792. 

Fishing, Egyptian, 497. 
Fishing in the night, 758. 
Flax. Smoking. 514. 
Flesh, Diseased, forbidden, 168. 
Flesh-pots, 124. 



508 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Floats, 294. 

Flute, 590. 

Foot, Watering with, 191. 

Fort, 565. 

Fortifications. 366. 

Foundation, Deep, 761. 

Foundation-stones, Inscriptions on, 

880. 
Freedom, by a javelin, 260. 

given by the son, 199. 
"Friend of the bridegroom," 794. 
Fringes of garments, 652. 
Fruit, Uncircumcised, 164. 
Frying-pan, 155. 
Fuel — charcoal, 819. 

grass, 646. 

sticks, 307. 

thorns, 441. 
Furlong, 809. 
Furniture, Camel's, 62. 

Gad, 535. 

Games — Boxiug, 865. 

Crown bestowed in, 864. 

Office of herald in, 866. 

Racing, 884. 

Rules to be kept in, 879. 

Training for, 864. 
Gardens, how watered, 426. 

outside of cities, 816. 
Garlands, in idolatrous worship, 837. 
Garment, (lebush,) 593. 
Garment, Outer. 205. 
Garments, Assyrian, 579. 

at feasts, 692. 

Forbidden, 200. 

of soldiers, red, 615. 

Perfumed, 436. . 

Persian, 593. 

rent, 70. 

Transparent, 488. 

valuable gifts, 93, 257, 397. 

watched over, 892. 

White, 472. 
Gate, The chamber over the, 284. 

exalted, 462. 

place of assembly, 15. 

place of justice, 199. 

place of market, 339. 

The midst of the, 268. 
Gates, Between the two, 282. 

of cities, shut at sundown, 531. 



Gentiles, Court of, 704. 

Gerah, 175. 

Girdle, for clothing, 314. 

Military, 318. 

of priest, 148. 
" Glass, darkly," 867. 
"Glasses," 488. 
Gleaning — grain, 239. 

grapes, 504. 

olives, 206. 
Gluttony, 179. 
Goad, 225. 
Goat-worship, 162. 
God of the hills, 320. 
Gods, called on in trouble, 610. 

like men, 309. 

visiting men, 835. 
Goel, 245. 
Golgotha, 728. 
Governor of the feast, 793. 
Granaries, 81. 

Subterranean, 554. 
Grapes, a staple article of food, 353. 
Grass, offered to Apis, 448. 

on housetops, 452. 
Grave, Visits to the, 811. 
Graves unseen, 773. 
Gravestones, 359. 
Greaves, 252. 

Grinding, a punishment, 235. 
Ground, Sitting on the, 490. 

"Writing on the, 543. 
Groves. (See Asheroth.) 

forbidden, 194. 
Guard at executions, 731. 
Guestchamber, 745. 
Guests, sprinkled, 525. 

viewed by the host, 692. 

Hair, Plaited, 489, 886. 
Hair plucked off, 386. 
"Hallel," The, 716. 
Hand, Clapping the, 346. 

given in submission, 560. 

Hanging by the, 562. 

Lifting up the, 5. 

Right and left — places of honor, 
686. 

Right and left — acquittal and 
conviction, 711. 

" shortened," 528. 

stretched out. 116, 854. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



509 



Hands, bound, 270. 

Ceremonial washing of, 431. 

Clapping the, 577. 

Engraving on the, 521. 

joined, 461. 

laid on victim, 160. 

lifted in blessing, 790. 

Mode of washing the, 329. 

Pharisaic washing of, 739. 

Smiting with the, 719. 

Uplifted, 300. 
11 Hangings " in court, 388. 
Harp, (kinnor,) 61. 

(kitharos,) 590. 
Harvest, Feast of, 131. 
Hat, 593. 
Hazerim, 186. 
Head, Burdens carried on the, 74. 

covered, 278. 

Earth and dust on the, 279. 

Hands on the, 537. 

Smiting on the, 453. 
Headbands, 486. 
Hearth, 553. 
Hedges, 690. 

Heifer, Sacrifice of red, 181. 
Helmet. 251. 
Help, Compulsory, 642. 
Hem of garment, 652. 
Herald, 513, 866. 
Herodians, 694. 
Hin, 167. 
Hinges, 467. 
Hissing, as a call, 491. 
Homer, 586. 
Honey prohibited, 149. 
Honor, Places of, 686. 
Hoods, 488. 
Horn, exalted, 249. 

musical instrument, 365. 
Horns of the altar — an asylum, 291. 
Horses, offered to the sun, 358. 
Horses, unshod, 607. 
Hosen. 593. 
Hospitality, 9, 41 9. 

Sanctity of, 150, 435. 
Hour, Origin of, 591. 

third, No food taken before the, 
825. 
Hours of the day, 806. 
House. (See Bedchamber, 345 ; Cham- 
ber on the wall, 333 ; Chamber 



over the gate, 284; Court, 387, 
720; Gate, 462, 833; Guest 
chamber, 745; Porch, 721; 
Hoof, 215, 275, 452, 464, 469, 
499, 657, 736, 829; Stairs, 
705.) 
"House of the women," 392. 
"House to house," 768. 
Housetop. (See Roof.) 
Houses for the dead, 265. 

Internal decorations of, 548. 

of clay, 411, 415. 

of criminals, destroyed, 589. 

of ivory, 604. 

Winter and summer, 604. 

Idol, Maachah's, 306. 
Idols. (See Images.) 

carried on shoulders, 5 1 9. 

Tidings carried to, 362. 
Images, Graven, 516. 

Molten, 137, 516. 

Stone, 173. 

Sun, 174 

Talismanic, 250. 
Inheritance, Law of, 779. 
Ink, 552. 
Inkhorn, 570. 
Inn, 751. 
Inscriptions on door-posts and gates, 

190. 
Inscriptions on foundation walls, 880. 
"Instruments of music," (shalishim,) 

258. 
Investiture, Priestly, 182. 
Invitation to royal banquet, 396. 
Invitations, Double, 691. 
Irrigation by canals. 426. 
Israelites, Court of, 704. 
Jailers, Responsibility of, 840. 
Javelin, {chanith,) 253. 
Jewels of bride and bridegroom, 533. 

on cheeks, 476. 

worn at festivals, 108. 
Jot, 639. / 

Jubilee, Year of, 172. 
Jupiter, 836. 

Kerchiefs, 573. 
Kesitah, 65. 
Key, 224. 

carried on shoulder, 502. 



510 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Kid, seethed in mother's milk, 133. 

King, Persian, unapproachable, 395. 

Kinsman. (See Goel.) 

Kiss. "Holy," 862. 

Kissing, an act of homage, 427. 

between men, 53. 
Kneading-troughs, 118. 
Knives, 216. 
Knocker of door, 833. 

Labor, degrading to warriors, 219. 
Laborers, Time for paying, 685. 
Lump, burning, Meaning of, 6. 
Lamps, 638, 708. 

and pitchers, 230. 
Lampstand, 638. 
Lance, 252. 
Landmarks, 197, 550. 
Lanterns, 817. 
Lap, shaken out, 380. 
Latchet of shoe, 791. 
Lattice of windows, 228. 
Laver of Tabernacle, 146. 
'• La .\- and Prophets," 834. 
Laws of Medes and Persians, unalter- 
able, 596. 
Leave-taking, Mode of, 22. 
Leaven, 666. 
Leaven, prohibited, 149. 
Lectisternia, 535. 
Letter, Open, 381. 
Letters, 381. 

for safe-conduct, 379. 
Levites, 178. 
Linen, Fine, 488. 
Litter, 478. 

Liver, Divination by, 578. 
Living of Babylonians, Luxurious, 588. 
Locks, 224. 
Locusts as food, 632. 
Lodge in a garden," 481. 
Lodging-places for travelers, 540. 
Looking behind, 17. 
Looking-glasses, 139. 
Lots. 463. 

Magi, 630. 
Magicians, 76. 
Malcham, 304. 
Mmeh 585. 
Manger, 751. 
Mantle, Prophet's, 182. 



Mantles, 487. 
Mark on forehead, 571. 
Market, a place for news, 842. 
Market-place, 684. 
"Marks," 873. 

Idolatrous, 212. 
Marriage between relatives, 55. 

Duration of feast at, 57. 

First-born first right to, 58. 

how sought, 105. 

of servant to master's daughter, 
361. 

without religious ceremony, 40. 
Marriages, Noisy mirth at, 539. 
Mattock, 493. 
4 'Me and thee," 264. 
Meal, Three measures of, 11. 
Meals, Egyptian, Position at, 87. 

Reclining at, 712. 
Measure, (chcenix,) 890. 

(seah.) 11. 
Meat, Savory, 46. 
Meat-offering, 152. 
"Medes and Persians," 596. 
Men, Mighty, 592. 
Meni, 535. 

Merchants, Itinerant, 885. 
Mercury, 836. 
Mercy-seat, 142. 
Merodach, 559. 
Metals, working in, 594. 
Middlemen in traffic, 25. 
Milcom, 304. 
Milk, 13. 

whitening the teeth, 97. 
Mill, 706. 
Millstones, 676. 

Minister of the synagogue, 757. 
Mirrors. 139. 
Mite, 742. 
Miter of priest, 148. 
Molech, 163. 
Money, 26. 

Clay, 374. 

Current, 26. 

weighed, 26. 
Money-changers in the temple, 688. 
Monuments, Stone, 414. 
Mortar, 159. 

Untempered, 572. 
Mortars, 470. 
" Mounts," 565. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



511 



Mourners, Hired, 541. 
Mourning — baldness, 494. 

beard cut off, 494. 

cuttings in flesh, 166. 

Ceremonial, 23. 

covering the upper Up, 612. 

Days of, 47. 

earth on the head, 279. 

fasting, 277. 

hands on the head, 537. 

head covered, 278. 

loud lamentations. 285. 

men and women apart, 624. 

plucking the hair, 386. 

rending clothes, 70. 

sackcloth, 70. 

seventy days, 98. 

sitting on the ground, 490. 

smiting the breast, 784. 

smiting the thigh, 549. 
Mufflers, 485. 
Mutilation of captives, 221. 

of criminals, 581. 

Nail in the wall, 503. 
Nakedness, 261. 
Names, Change of, 371. 

derived from cattle, 52. 

Double, 807. 

given at circumcision, 749. 

of girls, taken from animals, 828. 

Religion of, 7. 

Significance of, 59, 425. 
Nazarites, 851. 
Nebo, 518. 
Neck, Foot on, 220. 

of enemies, 96. 
Necklaces, 476. 
Necromancers, 195. 
Needlework, 229. 
Neighbors, 769. 
Nergal, 351. 
Net, (resheth,) 598. 

used in single combat, 413. 
Nethinim, 372. 
Nets, Fishing, 668. 

for hunting and fowling. (See 
Snares.) 
Nibhaz, 351. 
Nile, Egyptian reverence for, 113. 

"Waters of, 114. 
"Ninety and nine," 677. 



Nisan, The month, 193. 

Nisroch, 355. 

Non-intercourse of Egyptians with 

foreigners, 86. 
Noon, the time of rest, 8, 475. 
Nose-jewels, 35. 
Numbers, Sacred, 468. 
Nurse, 37. 

Oil, Fresh, 446. 

from the rock, 418. 

pressed with the feet, 213. 

Pure, beaten, 135. 

with wine, Medicinal use of, 770. 
Ointments, 712. 
Olives, how gathered, 206. 
Omer, 125. 
Organs, 455. 

Ornaments. (See Saharonim.) 
" Ornaments of the legs," 486. 
Ovens, 155. 

Palms, indicative of joy, 891. 

Pan, 155. 

Passover, Feast of, 130. 

Hospitality during, 714. 

how kept in time of Christ, 716. 

Preparation for, 715. 
Patrimony, not to be sold, 322. 
Pavilion, 319. 
Peace-offerings, 156. 
Pelethites, 287.' 
Penny, 683. 
Pens, 888. 

"Persians and Medes," 596. 
Pharaoh, 3. 
Pharisees, 693, 700. 
Phylacteries, 697. 
Physicians, Egyptian, 98. 
"Pictures of silver," 465. 
"Pieces of silver," 713. 
Pillar, King's, 347. 

of stone, 49. 
Pillow of stone, 48. 
Pillows, 573,.737. 
Pinnacle of the temple, 635. 
Pipes, 290. 
Pit, Cast into a, 68. 

"Going down into," 444. 
Pitcher, (amphora,) 144:. 
Pitchers of earthenware, 32. 
Pitfalls, for hunting. 575. 



512 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Places, High, 174. 

Pledge, 254. 

Pledge of goods, how obtained, 204. 

Plow, 317. 

Plowing, 317, 766. 

Plowshare, 482. 

Porch of house, 721. 

Solomon's, 704. 
Porter, 283. 
Portions sent, 384. 
Post, Swiftness of, 407. 
Pot, 332. 

Pottage of lentiles, 42. 
Potter, 544. 
Pound, (money,) 785. 

(weight,) 585, 812. 
Prayer, by river side, 838. 

Posture during, 741. 

Repetitions in, 645. 

Stated times of, 595. 
Prayers, Long, 700. 
Praying, with face toward the temple, 
595. 

with hands outstretched, 300. 

with head in the bosom, 433. 
Presents, at various times, 64. 

Bridal, 36. 

in trouble, 424. 

of clothing, 93, 257, 397. 

Ostentation in making, 340. 
Priests, Chief, 717. 

Court of, 704. 
Prison, 72. 
Prisoners, bound to soldiers, 831. 

reserved for triumph, 505. 
Processions, Egyptian funeral, 100. 
Property, Transfer of, 27. 
Prostration, 80. 
Psaltery, (nebel,) 432. 

(pesanterin,) 590. 
Publican, 759. 
Punishment, Capital, by chaining to 

corpse, 860. 
Purification by hyssop, 437. 
Purim, Feast of, 401. 
Purse, {&vas,) 653. 
Purses, (charitim,) 487. 

Quarter of city, 16. 
Quaternion, 830. 
Queen, Persian, 394. 
Quiver, 500. 



Rabbi, 699. 

Racing, 884. 

Raiment, reckoned as wealth, 417. 

Rain, Sound of, 312. 

Ranges, 158. 

Rank at table, 87. 

Reading aloud, 827. 

in the synagogue, 755. 
Receipt of custom, 759. 
Reclining at meals, 712. 
Repetition of words, idiomatic, 534. 
Riddles, 234. 
Rimmon, 337. 
Ring in the nose, 512. 
Ring-money, 26. 
Ring, Signet, 79. 
Rings for fish, 421. 
Rising, Early, 21. 

Roads, made ready for monarchs, 513. 
Robbers, 409. 

lurking, 428. 
Robe of High-Priest, 148. 

Scarlet, 726. 
Rock, Throwing from a, 368. 
Rod, Family, 180. 

Passing under the, 176. 
Rods, Divination by, 597. 
Rolls, Manuscript, 511. 

written on both sides, 563. 
Roof— "broken up," 736. 

Dwelling on, 464. 

place of assembling, 499. 

place of drying, 215. 

place of prayer, 829. 

place of promenade, 275. 

Proclamation from, 657. 

Stairs from, 705. 
Roofs, Grass growing on, 452. 

Leaky, 469. 

Mode of constructing, 452. 
Rooms, Chief, 777. 
Ropes upon heads, 321. 
Rudders, 858. 
Ruler of the synagogue, 834. 

Sabbath-day's journey, 824. 

Sackbut, 590. 

Sackcloth, 70. 

Sacks, 82. 

Sacrifice, Time of evening, 311. 

Sacrifices. Human, 330. 

offered to implements, 617. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



513 



Sacrifices, of the dead, 449. 

Saddles, 21. 

Sadducees, 695. 

Saharonim, 231. 

Salt applied to infants, 514. 

in sacrifices, 150. 

Savorless, 637. 
Salutation—" Peace !" 823. 

"Well!" 336. 
Salutations, 84, 240, 767. 
Samaritans, Jewish hatred of, 800. 
Samson and the pillars, 238. 

making sport, 237. 
Sandals, 832. 

Military, 874. 

representative of worthlessness, 
601. 
Sanhedrim, The Great, 718. 

The Lesser, 656. 
Sawing asunder, 883. 
Saws, 298. 
Scepters, 576. 
"Schoolmaster," 872. 
Schools of the prophets, 326. 
Scourging, Jewish, 656. 

Roman, 724. 
Scribes, 648. 
Scrip, 256. 

Scriptures, Jewish, how divided, 789. 
Sculpture, Colored, 580. 
Sealing of Christ, 797. 
Seals, 323, 420. 
Seats, Chief, 698. 

without backs, 248. 
Sebat, The month, 622. 
Seeds, Mixed, forbidden, 202. 
Seirim, 162. 

Sepulcher, Stone door of, 734. 
Sepulchers, garnished, 703. 

Rock, 501. 

sealed, 735. 

"Whited, 702. 
Serpent- charming, 439. 
Servant, "Eldest," 29. 
Servants, watching eyes of master,451 . 
Seven, The number, 468. 
Shadow desired, 406. 
Shaving, Egyptian custom of, 77. 
Sheepfold, 803. 
Sheets, 488. 
Shekel, 26. 

Half, 674. 



Shekel, of the sanctuary, 175. 
Shepherd and sheep, 804. 

Chief, 887. 
Shepherds, abomination to Egyptians, 
95. 

"Wandering, 106. 
Shield, (kidon,) 252. 

(magen,) 302. 

(tsinnah,) 253. 

"uncovered," 500. 
Shields, anointed, 498. 

reddened, 615. 
Ship, 662. 
Shoe, a symbol of ownership, 247. 

loosed, 208. 
Shoes, 654. 

carried by servants, 633. 

when removed, 107. 
Shoulder, Burden on, 20. 
Shrines of Diana, 846. 
" Sign " on ships, 859. 
Silence, in presence of royalty, 619. 
Singing at work, 495. 
Sin-offering, 153. 
Si strum. 272. 
Sitting, at work, 759. 

posture of teacher, 757. 
Sivan, The month, 400. 
Skin for skin, 403. 
Skirt, Spreading the, 2451 
Slaughter of animals for food, 83. 
Slaves elevated to power, 78. 
Sling, 256. 

Smiting the breast, 784. 
Snares of fowler, 445. 

of hunter, 289. 
Snow, Use of, in summer, 466. 
Snow-water, Supposed virtues of, 408. 
Soap, 626. 
Soldier, Roman, Discipline of, 877. 

Roman, to have no other occu- 
pation, 878. 
Son, Use of the word, 650. 
Songs of Yictory, 258. 

Responsive, 259. 
"Sop," 746. 

given to another, 815. 
Sower, "going forth," 663. 
Sowing beside all waters, 510. 
Span, 136. 
Spear, (chanitli.) 253. 

{kiibm.) 251 



514 



BIBLE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 



Spear, (romach,) 555. 

planted near chieftain, 266. 
Spears for fishing, 422. 
Spitting in the face, 719. 
Spots, Idolatrous, 212. 
Stadium, 884. 
Staff of shepherd, 256. 
Stairs, 705. 
Standards, 177. 

Standing before the judge, 722. 
Stater, 675. 
Stewards, 781. 
Sticks for fuel, 307. 

"Writing on, 583. 
Stocks, 839. 
Stoics, 843. 
Stomacher, 489. 
Stone, " Burdensome," 623. 
Stones, anointed, 49. 

heaped over graves, 217. 

plastered, 211. 

sign of covenant, 63. 

worshiped, 527. 
Storehouses, Subterranean, 554. 
Strainer, Wine. 701. 
Succoth-benoth, 351. 
Sun-dial, 356. 
Swearing, 641. 

Peculiar mode of, 29. 
Sword, 255. 

Sycamine figs, how gathered, 608. 
Synagogue, 636. 

Discipline of, 656. 

Expulsion from, 802. 
Synagogues, sometimes built by in- 
dividuals, 762. 

Tabernacle, The Jewish, 141. 

Outer court of, 147. 
Tabernacles, Feast of, 131. 
Table of show-bread, 143. 
Tables, Egyptian, 86. 

on the ground, 442. 
Tablet of the condemned, 732. 
Tablets, 486. 

Leaden, 414. 

"Writing, 750. 
Tabret, 61. 
Talents, 140. 
Tammuz, 567. 

Tapestry, Coverings of, 459. 
Tares, sown by an enemy, 665. 



Target, (kidon,) 252. 

(tsinnah,) 301. 
Tartak, 351. 

Taskmasters, Cruelty of, 110. 
Tattooing, 166. 
Tear-bottles, 438. 
Tebeth, The month, 393. 
Teeth, broken, 440. 
Temple, Gifts to the, 786. 

of Diana, 847. 

of Herod, 704. 

of Solomon, 295. 

of Zerubbabel. 375. 
"Tender-eyed," Meaning of, 54. 
Tent, Door of, 8, 14. 

for wife, 40. 
Tents, 474. 
Teraphim, 60, 578. 
"Testimony," at coronation, 346. 

given standing, 661. 
Theaters, places for public business, 

848. 
Thigh, Smiting the, 549. 
Thorns, for fuel, 441. 

Harvest taken out of, 404. 
Threshing by oxen, 207. 
Threshing-floor, 101. 

Sleeping on, 244. 
Threshing instruments, 508. 
Throne. Solomon's, 303. 
Tiles, 564. 
Timbrel, 61. 

Times, Observer of, 195. 
Tires, 231. 
Tirshatha, 383. 
Title, 639. 

Tomb. (See Sepulcher.) 
Tombs, Dwelling among, 738. 
"Tormentors," 679. 
Towers in the desert, 369. 

in vineyards, 690. 
Town clerk, 850. 
Trade, usually learned, 844. 
Tradition, 672. 
Traveling at night, 771. 
Treasure, hidden, 667. 
Treasure-house, Idol, 587. 
Treasures, hoarded, 357. 
Treasury of the temple, 704. 
Trespass-offering, 154. 
Tribute, 674. 
Triumph. Roman, 870. 



TOPICAL INDEX. 



515 



Troughs, for water, 34. 
Trumpet, (chatsotserah), 447. 

(shophar,) 447. 
Trumpets, Feast of, 170. 
Tunic, 821. 

Priest's, 148. 
" Two or three," 678. 

Undergirding, 856. 

Urech ainanar, 117. 

Urim and Thummim, 148. 

Vail, for bride, 39. 

(mitpachath,) 246. 

of temple, 733. 
Vails, (redidim,) 488. 

(realoth,) 485. 
"Vessel to vessel," 558. 
Vessels, Earthen, to be broken, 157. 

of bulrushes. 496. 
Vestments, Baaiite, 344. 
Vestures, Pine linen, 79. 
Vial of oil, 341. 

Vine and fig-tree, Sitting under, 613. 
Vinegar, 241. 
Vineyards, 690. 
Voices of spirits, 509. 
Vows. 851. 

Wagons. 92. 
Walls of gardens, 690. 
War, Time for, 274. 
Warriors, Assyrian, 615. 
Watches of the night, 121, 743. 
Watchmen, 283, 479. 
Water, drawn at Feast of Taberna- 
cles, 798. 

how carried, 31. 

poured on hands, 329. 

Vessels for, 112. 

when drawn, 31. 
Way, strewed with garments, 687. 
Wayside, 664. 



Wealth, Pastoral, 402. 
Weaning-time, Feast at, 1 9. 
Weapons buried with warrior, 582. 
Weeping for joy, 91. 
Weights, Stone, 209. 

True and false, 209. 
Wells, covered with stones, 50, 51. 

Deep, 795. 

filled up by enemies, 43. 

in courtyard, 281. 

outside of villages, 31. 

Strife for, 44. 
Wheat, Place of storing, 271. 
Wife, following husband, 17. 
Wimples, 4S7. 
Window in wall, 871. 
Windows, 228. 
Wine, decanted, 558. 

mixed, 460. 

Use of, by the Egyptians, 73. 
Wine-press, 690. 
Wines on the lees, 506. 
Winnowing, 243, 609. 
Witches, 195. 
Wives of priests, 748. 
Wizards, 195. 
Women, Court of, 704. 

not to be conversed with, 796. 

Dancing, 483. 
Wood-offering, 385. 
Wood, sometimes used to bind walls, 

618. 
Working-day, 682. 
Worms in the grave, 416. 
Worship of heavenly bodies, 189. 
Wounds, Mode of treating, 480. 

Year of jubilee, 172. 
Year, Sabbatical, 171. 
Yoke, 599. 

Zabaism, 189. 

Zif, The month, 296. 



THE END. 



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